Building the World

August 7, 2024
by Building The World
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ENERGY: Nuclear Decisions – Part I

The only building left standing in Hiroshima, Japan, after 6 August 1945 is now a peace memorial. “Genbaku Dome” photographed by Oilstreet, Creative Commons 2.5.

This week marks the 79th year since the tragedy of nuclear warfare. Japan, only country to have experienced the effects of nuclear warfare, has always pledged non-participation in nuclear arms development. While the US has traditionally included Japan and South Korea in its protection, recent geopolitics in the area (and elsewhere) may encourage self-protection. With fear rising in Seoul due to its nuclear northern neighbor, 71 per cent of South Koreans surveyed expressed belief that self-protection may be necessary.

Tragic bombing of Japan in August 1945. Left image: Hiroshima (6 August 1945) by George P. Caron. Right image: Nagasaki (9 August 1945) by Charles Levy. Image from U.S. Department of Energy. Public Domain.

Japan may be less inclined. There are still 106,823 survivors who are a testament to the tragedy of August 1945. And the present generation who experienced the 2011 Fukushima disaster have grown wary of nuclear danger: not just in war but in energy production. In the Fukushima tragedy, 47,000 people fled their homes, ocean water near the plant became contaminated, and 80 square miles (207 square kilometers) were declared uninhabitable. Loss and damage remediation cost: estimated at $660 billion (71 trillion Yen). Those who visit Fukushima, or the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum, may reflect upon past – and future- nuclear decisions.

Einstein stated the letter to FDR was his life’s biggest regret. Image: “Albert Einstein, 1947” by photographer Jack Oren Turner, 1947. Public Domain.

Einstein, whose letter to then-president Franklin D. Roosevelt led to the development of the Manhattan Project that resulted in the bombs, said it was his life’s biggest regret. Is it finally time for the world to join and support Hiroshima’s declaration, this week, that we must move from “ideal” to real action in nuclear disarmament. Governor Hidehiko Yuzaki of Hiroshima Prefecture noted that once a weapon is invented, likelihood of use becomes a problem that may never resolve. If you want to support nuclear disarmament, lift your voice here or here.

Wyoming is the location of TerraPower’s civil nuclear energy and electricity plant with a new, safer design: will it change nuclear decisions? Image: “John Moulton Barn at base of Grand Tetons, Wyoming” by photographer John Sullivan, 2004. Dedicated to the public domain.

But what about nuclear power as a non-carbon source of energy in a world seeking to stop carbon-caused climate change? Microsoft co-founder and philanthropist Bill Gates invested in TerraPower in 2008: in 2024, the company developed a new design for a power plant in Kemmerer, Wyoming, USA. Gates noted that former nuclear designs use water to cool the system (a problem in the Fukushima disaster), but the Wyoming project will use liquid sodium. The medium can withstand eight times more heat than water, and does not require pumping back into the system. It still uses uranium, however.

“Uranium electron shell diagram” by graphic designer Pumbaa80. Creative commons 2.0.

Uranium is radioactive in all its isotopes; U-235 is fissile, and is the basis for most of the world’s nuclear power stations. As a mineral, uranium decays into other, lighter, elements: but it takes time. The half-life of U-235: 704 million years. Storage of spent fuel continues to be an issue. The world’s biggest deposits of uranium are in Australia, Canada, and Kazakhstan: these countries therefore may influence world nuclear policies.

Not all countries have signed, and ratified, the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT). How can you help to advance support? Image: “CTBT Participation as of 2022” by graphic designer Allstar86. Creative Commons 3.0.

Even more influence comes from those who have not signed, or have resigned from, the global Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT). Russia pulled out; the US has signed but never ratified. India, North Korea, and Pakistan have not yet signed. While 187 nations have agreed, only 36 have ratified. In addition to the US, China, Egypt, Iran, and Israel have not yet ratified. If you live in a country that has not signed or ratified, your action and encouragement can make a difference.

France has the largest share of civil nuclear power for electricity generation. It is also home to ITER, site of development of fusion energy. Image: “Nuclear plants map of France,” by graphic designer Sting, 2006. Public Domain.

But as the Atomic Energy Act reminds us, nuclear power is an energy form with environmental (and medical) benefits. Advocates of nuclear power, including Gates, speak of its potential to help the world achieve a carbon-free, net-zero goal as we transition away from coal, gas, and oil. Many join Gates in supporting nuclear energy for a carbon-free world. Today, there are nuclear power plants supplying energy and electricity in over 50 countries. The US, France, China, Japan, Russia, South Korea, Canada, and Ukraine (in that order) are the top producers; France has the largest share of energy generation from nuclear. Germany, however, decided to phase out and decommission its nuclear energy infrastructure.

Global Zero is an international organization dedicated to a world without nuclear weapons. Image: “Global Zero” by Global Zero. Public Domain. Included with appreciation.

But even if new civil nuclear designs like that of TerraPower are safer operationally, are nuclear power plants still a danger as potential targets? Ukraine would say this is sadly true, as evidenced by recent threats to Zaporizhzhia. Bombing or otherwise exploding a civil nuclear facility built to generate electricity would result in two disasters: disabling energy infrastructure and triggering a radioactive explosion that would cause immediate casualties and lingering contamination. A database of nuclear terrorism is maintained by the Monterey Institute of International Studies, James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies Middlebury Institute of International Studies at Monterey, and the Center for International Security and Cooperation at Stanford University. Organizations like Global Zero offer ways to get involved. The United Nations Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, 7 July 2017, offers a vision.

In the next part, we’ll look at possibly safer forms of civil nuclear energy. Using uranium may be dangerous, but could small modular nuclear reactors (SMR) be less of a threat? And will the work of Jean-Louis Bobin and other physicists developing nuclear fusion independent of uranium change the field – and the world?

When learning that this week marks the 79th anniversary of the use of nuclear weapons in war, a student remarked: “By next year, the 80th, how can we reach complete nuclear disarmament?”

Image: “Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament,” by photographer Marshall Colman, 2010. Public Domain. Included with appreciation.

Take action here or here. This week, especially, honor peace.

Bobin, Jean-Louis. Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion. World Scientific: 2014. 978-9814590686

Brooke, K. Lusk. “Oppenheimer,” 22 July 2023. Building the World Blog. https://blogs.umb.edu/buildingtheworld/2023/07/22/energy-oppenheimer/

Davidson, Frank P. and K. Lusk Brooke. “The Manhattan Project,” Chapter 26. pages 477-514. Volume II. Building the World. Greenwood 2006. ISBN: 0-313-33374-2.

Gates, Bill. “Nuclear Power.” VIDEO. 16 June 2024. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2024/06/16/business/video/bill-gates-nuclear-power-gps-sot-digvid

Global Zero. https://www.globalzero.org/take-action/chaosnewstart/index.html

Holdren, John P. “Threats to Civil Nuclear-energy Facilities,” chapter, Science and Technology to Counter Terrorism: Proceedings of an Indo-U.S. Workshop. 2007. National Academies Press. https://nap.nationalacademicies.org/read/11848/chapter/8

International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN). Nobel Peace Prize 2017. “How to stop nuclear weapons.” https://www.icanw.org/take_action_now

Jiangtao, Shi. “Could Japan and South Korea join the nuclear club? Cold war fears put the prospect in play.” 6 August 2024. South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/opinion/china-opinion/article/3273440/could-japan-and-south-korea-join-nuclear-club-cold-war-fears-put-prospect-play

Kingsbury, Kathleen, Editor, with W.J. Hennigan, and Spencer Cohen. 2024. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2024/05/22/opinion/nuclear-weapons-nytimes.html

Langley, Winston E. Abolishing War. Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2024. ISBN: 978-1-962551-25-0

Nicholls-Lee, Deborah. ” ‘It was the one great mistake in my life’: The letter from Einstein that ushered in the age of the atomic bomb.” 6 August 2024. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20240801-it-was-the-one-great-mistake-in-my-life-the-letter-from-einstein-that-ushered-in-the-age-of-the-atomic-bomb

Nolan, Christopher. “Oppenheimer.” IMDb. https://www.imdb.com/title-tt15398776

United Nations. “Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.” 7 July 2017. https://disarmament.unoda.org/wmd/nuclear/tpnw/#:~:text=The%20Treaty%20on%20the%20Prohibition,threaten%20to%20use%20nuclear%20weapons

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. “TerraPower, LLC, Submittal of the Construction Permit Application for the Natrium Reactor Plant, Kemmerer Power Station, Unit 1,” Accession number ML24088A059, 10 April 2024. https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML2408/ML24088A059.html

World Nuclear Association. “Uranium mining overview.” 16 May 2024. https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/uranium-mining-overview

Yamaguchi, Mari. “Hiroshima governor says nuclear disarmament must be tackled as a pressing issue, not an ideal.” 6 August 2014. Associated Press. https://www.conchovalleyhomepage.com/news/ap-hiroshima-governor-says-nuclear-disarmament-must-be-tackled-as-a-pressing-issue-not-an-idea/

Great appreciation to colleagues who suggested nuclear disarmament paths.

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

August 1, 2024
by Building The World
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ENERGY: UNESCO Peat Protection

Scotland’s Flow Country Peatland is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Image: “Wetland in the Flow Country” by Andrew Tryon, 2017. Creative Commons 2.0. With appreciation.

Peatlands occupy only 3% of global terrain, yet hold more than 30% of land-based carbon. But when harvested (for fuel or industrial use), peat releases ten times more greenhouse gases – including powerful methane – than cut forests. Another danger when peat is cut: wildfires. Disturbing peat punctures holes in connected bogs, triggering a drying process that too often leads to conflagrations.

Cut peatlands quickly dry surrounding bogland, often resulting in wildfires. Image: “Borneo fires and smoke from burning peatland, 2002” by Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Land Rapid Response Team of NASA/GSFC. Public domain. With appreciation.

How to protect peat has become one of the quests of our era. Scotland, abundant in peat, may lead the way. The Flow Country of Caithness and Sutherland is home to one of the world’s most important peat bogs stretching 469,500 acres (2,000 square kilometers). In addition to the Flow’s carbon sequestration benefits, the peatland is also home to wildlife including otters, voles, and the aerial balletic hen harrier birds.

Harriers and Plovers live in protected Flow Country Forsinard Preserve, Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, 2004. Creative Commons 2.0. With appreciation.

Scotland’s government policies allow purchase of land, including peatlands, and also may provide reimbursement (up to 80%) of bog regeneration costs. After the peatland is certified as renewed, carbon credits may follow. Fast-fashion mogul Anders Holch Polvsen purchased 200,000 acres of peatlands adjoining stately manor houses with a plan for new enterprise “Wildland” offering ecotourism. One of the homes: Glenfeshie, may be familiar to Netflix viewers as site of “The Crown.”

Glenfeshie, featured in “The Crown,” is now part of an eco-tourism program preserving peatlands. Image: “The Crown,” fair use. With appreciation.

Speaking of royalty, King Charles visited Flow peatland recently to dedicate Scotland’s Flow peat bog as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The program preserves significant world treasures such as the Eiffel Tower and the Place de la Concorde (now hosting the 2024 Summer Olympics), but only 121 landscapes have achieved such recognition. Other landscapes thus protected include the Great Barrier Reef, and Galapagos Islands.

Here is a map of the world’s peatlands. What can you do to help protect these global treasures, so important in our time of climate change? Image: “PeatMap” by Jiren Xu, et al., 2017. Creative Commons 4.0. With appreciation.

Flow Country’s preservation was a 40-year effort: its culmination was coordinated by Rebecca Tanner, whose studies at the University of Manchester in Science Communication resulted in the UNESCO success. If you have access to a peatland, what actions can you take to protect and preserve these landscape treasures, so important in our time of climate change?

Brooke, K. Lusk. “3% for 30%?” 8 March 2024. Building the World Blog. https://blogs.umb.edu/buildingtheowlrd/2024/03/08/energy-peat-3-for-30/

International Peatland Society (IPS). https://peatlands.org

Global Peatlands Initiative. “COP 28 Virtual Peatlands Pavillion.” 2023 https://storage.net-fs.com/hosting/61470bb/18/

Rowlatt, Justin. “Scottish bog gets world heritage status,” 27 July 2024. BBC. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/atticles/cv2gz1p2v12o

UNESCO. “Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage.” 1972. https://whc.unesco.org/en/conventiontext/

Ward, Sarah. “King tours peat bog recently given world heritage site status.” Independent. 31 July 2024. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/the-king-royal-society-for-the-protection-of-birds-charles-ian-murray-unesco-b2588839.html

Appreciation to Cherie E. Potts for contributing research to this topic and post.

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

July 26, 2024
by Building The World
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CITIES: Olympian Innovations and Climate Change

“Eiffel Tower” by photographer Tommie Hansen, 2013. Creative Commons 2.0. Included with appreciation.

Paris opens the Olympics today. One hundred years ago, in 1924, the city of lights last hosted the world’s games. What has changed? Each Olympic city endeavors to introduce innovations: this summer, many will reflect responses and solutions to climate change.

River Seine from Bercy by photographer Mortimer62, 2010: Creative Commons 2.0. Included with appreciation.

Beach volleyball will take place at the foot of the Eiffel Tower ( on a temporary beach of imported sand). Real sand will greet Olympic surfers who will ride the waves in Teahupo’o, Tahiti. For the opening ceremony, athletes will float down the Seine (the city’s mayor swam in the river to prove its cleanliness).

The 1964 Tokyo Olympics featured the new Shinkansen rail transit system -profitable from day one. Image: Shinkansen Series N700a at Mt. Fuji by photographer Maeda Akihito, 2021. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.

Hosting the Olympics is both a financial danger and an opportunity for upgraded infrastructure. When Tokyo opened the 1964 Olympics, a new transit system debuted. Shinkansen, Japan’s famed train system, was completed just 10 days before. Timing was ideal: the new train line was profitable from day one, according to financial analysis by Japanese historian of technology Hoshimi Uchida. After the Olympics, Shinkansen expanded its reach: in 2022, there were 16,347 miles (27,245 kilometers) of tracks for trains carrying 382 billion passengers.

When Rio de Janeiro hosted the 2016 Olympics, supermodel Gisele Bündchen graced the opening ceremony. Image: Agéncia Brasil, 2016. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.

But past performance is not a guarantee of future profits. When Tokyo opened the 2020 Olympics (held in 2021 due to the global pandemic) there were no tourists to ride the rails. Hosting was heroic but unprofitable, costing $20 billion. Athens hosted in 2004, building a stadium that not only racked up debt but, some economists state, may have ushered in a financial meltdown. Rio 2016 featured Gisele Bündchen strolling the opening ceremony to “The Girl from Ipanema.” But the city later had to sell off the newly-built Olympic Village at a financial loss. Looking at the numbers from past Olympics, Denver, Colorado bowed out of the running for the 1976 winter Games. Is hosting the Olympics worth it?

Barcelona improved urban infrastructure during its hosting of the Games. Image: “1992 Summer Olympics” logo. Included with appreciation.

Barcelona emerged, in 1992, as a model of success through Olympian planning. New beaches, new transport including rail and a new airport, new telecommunications systems were so effective that a new term in architecture and urban planning emerged: “the Barcelona Effect.” London’s 2012 Olympics proved a new environmental technology: the renovated West Ham tube station offered renewable electricity created by movement of people crossing floors that lighted the entire metro station. Laurence Kemball-Cook, then a graduate student at Loughborough University, designed the technology plan and later formed PaveGen to offer electric floors to offices, hospitals, schools, and other buildings (including dance clubs) with ample foot traffic.

Dominque Perrault, chief architect for the new Olympian facility at Seine-Saint-Denis, also designed the above pictured Hippodrome de Longchamp in Paris. Image: Madeira78, 2018. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.

Will Paris 2024 be a success? Some see renovations in Seine-Saint-Denis – a cluster of 40 small towns – as a means to improve an area plagued by joblessness and crime. After the Games, the area may emerge reborn as a “mixity” of residential and business activity: 40 architects who worked with central planner Dominique Perrault will see if that vision endures. Some worry displaced residents could return only to be priced out. Sustainability is part of the plan: seats for an aquatic center are made from recycled plastic bottle caps collected by children in Seine-Saint-Denis schools. (Kimmelman 2024)

Among the many innovations Paris will bring to the 2024 Olympics is an underground cooling system that will keep athletes comfortable amid the rising heat levels related to climate change. The water-cooled (recycled) technology, part of the Paris vision to be carbon-neutral by 2050, is based on advanced geothermal technology.

Paris: city of COP21 the “Paris Agreement” and city of the 2024 Olympics. Image: “2015 Climate Conference poster,” public domain. Included with appreciation.

The Paris Olympics 2024 will take place in the same city that achieved the COP21 Paris Agreement; this summer’s Games may set new examples of how cities can respond to climate change for a more sustainable, renewable world.

Will Paris light the way for innovations that cities can adopt in climate change? Paris 2024 Summer Olympics Logo. Included with appreciation

Brooke, K. Lusk. Renewing the World: WATER, 2022. ISBN: 9798985035919. https://renewingtheworld.com

Davidson, Frank P. and K. Lusk Brooke, “Shinkansen – National High-Speed Railways,” Chapter 35, Building the World, Volume II, pages 669 -680, 2006. ISBN: 9780313333743.

Kimmelman, Michael. “Hosting the Olympics costs billions. What does a city get back?” 22 July 2024. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2024/07/22/magazne/olympics-city-redevelopment-paris.html

Pavegen.https://www.pavegen.com

Runnerstribe Admin. “Paris Olympics: A Cool Solution to Summer Heat.” 26 March 2024. https://runnerstribe.com/news/paris-olympics-a-cool-solution-to-summer-heat

Shadbolt, Peter. “Future cities may harvest energy from human footsteps” 2014. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2014/12/30/tech/innovation/tomorrow-transformed-energy-harvesting/index.html

July 15, 2024
by Building The World
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ENERGY: Maximizing Minerals Part 3 – Graphite (and Graphene)

Minerals like graphite (and graphene) may be rewriting our energy future. Image: “Electromagnetic induction” animation by Ponor, 2005. Creative Commons 4.0.

Graphite may be one of the answers to the carbon transition. Carbon in its purest crystalline form, graphite is rewriting energy, especially in its related form of graphene. Graphite is basically thousands of layers of graphene. What are these two and why are they named after writing?

If you have ever taken a test or made notes with a pencil, chances are it is No. 2 “lead”. In fact, it is not lead (as was originally thought, hence the name) but made with graphite. Because graphite comes in a variety of options: H markings designate its hardness (2 or even 3 for a harder core) or B for blackness of resultant writing.

Graphite is commonly used in pencils. Some say the pencil was an early enabler of widespread education. Image: “HB pencils” by photographer Dmgerman, 2007. Creative Commons 3.0.

What is graphite and why it is called by that name? Around 1550, in Borrowdale, Cumbria, England, sheep farmers who discovered a large deposit of the mineral found it very effective for marking sheep, identifying those in their herds and flocks.

Graphite was originally used in Borrowdale, England, to write on lambs and sheep. Image: “Sheep, Stodmarsh, Kent, England” by photographer Keven Law, 2008. Creative Commons 2.0.

Writing on sheep soon expanded to centering this new material in casings of wood to be used as a writing instrument. We can credit Abraham Gottlob Werner for coining the term graphite (“writing stone”). Thus was born the pencil. It was so effective at writing, and so abundant in nature (along with wood to encase it), that some historians credit the invention of the pencil with the expansion of public education. No longer would a quill be needed.

Before graphite pencils, quills and ink were needed for writing. Image: “The Bookkeeper” by Philip van Dijk, circa 1725. From Gallery Prince Willem V, The Hague, Netherlands. Creative Commons0 1.0: public domain.

Graphite proved versatile. Resistant to heat, yet malleable, it came to be used in lining molds for cannonballs. It could be fashioned into a crucible, a container for mixing metals at high temperatures. Graphite became so important in England that it was controlled by the Crown.

Cannonballs may not be used in modern warfare, but persist in mythology. Here, Marvel Comics “Cannonball” from X-Men, 2007. Image: fair use. With appreciation to Marvel Comics.

Because graphite is resistant to heat, and also can conduct electricity, it entered a new era in the 1970s for use in batteries. Graphite is an excellent anode (the electrode of a polarized electrical device through which a positive current enters the device). Its partner, the cathode, is where current leaves the device. These words, too, were coined. In 1834, William Whewell and Michael Faraday discussed the need for a name. They decided upon the inspiration of nature, following the path of the sun. Anode was patterned on Greek for “ano = upwards” + “odos = the way” – it was a model of the sun rising. Cathode was from the Greek “kath = down” + “odos = the way.”

Anode and Cathode were named after the rising and setting of the sun. Image: “Sun Animation” by designer Sfls4309pks, 2018. Creative Commons 4.0.

Graphite is a dominant anode material in lithium-ion batteries. Manufacturers of batteries and related applications continue to develop innovations for graphite use. Graphite is so important in industry that more than 60,000 patent applications for graphite technologies were filed in the decade 2011 to 2021: China filed 47,000.

“Lithium cobaltate vs graphite lithium-ion battery schematic” by Sergey WereWolf, 2016. Donated by the graphic artist to the public domain, Creative Commons0 1.0. Included with appreciation.

Generally, graphite is mined. Most comes from China, India, Brazil, Turkey, and North Korea; it was also once mined in the United States. World reserves of graphite can be found in Turkey, China, Brazil, but also Madagascar, Mozambique, Sri Lanka and Tanzania. Purity varies: Sri Lanka has deposits with a purity of 99%. Ride a Sri Lankan graphite mine elevator here.

Graphite Mine in Kmegalle, Sri Lanka, circa 1897. Image from Cassell & Co. This image is in the public domain.

Graphite can also be synthesized: Edward G. Acheson was the first to do so Like many scientific discoveries, it happened by accident. But the patent Acheson received in 1896 opened a new industry for synthetic graphite.

Acheson Process for synthesizing graphite. Image: “Acheson furnace” by graphic artist Quasihuman. Creative Commons 3.0.

Graphite can be recycled, with the resultant powder used to amplify the carbon content of molten steel. Recovering graphite from batteries or lubricants (or the core of nuclear reactors) involves sulfuric acid curing, leaching, and calcination to separate reusable graphite. In current practice, recycling of the cathode part of batteries has been common, but less so the spent anode graphite. But with scarce new resource supply and environmental trends, regneration of spent graphite anodes from electric vehicle batteries will increase (Shang, et al., 2014). The global market for recycled graphite is still small: $45 million in 2021 projected to grow to $110 million by 2031 – maybe much more.

Graphite may be most valuable as the parent source of graphene, which is extracted from the mineral. Graphite is composed of layers with rings of carbon atoms that are spaced in horizontal sheets. Graphene is derived from Some herald graphene as the future of sustainable materials. It is used in applications as diverse as mobile phones and solar panels. It’s pure carbon and it is strong – more than 200 times stronger than steel. And it’s light – five times lighter than aluminum. It has thermal properties, it conducts electricity. In batteries, graphene could increase battery life by 10 times, shorten charging time. Because it is so light, yet powerful, graphene is ideal for batteries that power drones. Because it is heat resistant, graphene could lessen the danger of batteries overheating.

Graphene nanoribbon band structures. Graphic by Saumitra R. Mehrotra and Gerhard Klimeck, at www.nanoHUB.org. Creative Commons 3.0.

So, is graphene the same as graphite? No, but they are related. the International Union for Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) made the key differentiation. Graphite is three-dimensional. While scientists knew about it, graphene was difficult to isolate. In 2004, Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov succeeded at the University of Manchester. In 2010, they received the Nobel Prize in Physics. Their process involved pulling graphene layers from graphite. The Prize noted “groundbreaking experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene.” (Nobel Prize 2010) It should be noted that subsequent discussion revealed the omission of Philip Kim of Columbia University; Geim responded he would gladly have shared the Prize with Kim.

Identification of graphene from graphite merited the Nobel Prize in 2010. Image: “Nobel Medal” by photographer Klaviaturka, 2018. Creative Commons 4.0.

Graphite is the crystalline form of carbon. It comes in three forms: amorphous, flake, and vein. It can be found in coal and shale. Flake carbon has the highest carbon content : 85-98 percent. Vein carbon is rare. but pure carbon up to 99 percent (it is now mined in Sri Lanka). Back in the early days, graphite was burned but in 1779 it was found to emit carbon dioxide under combustion. So, is graphite part of the carbon problem? Perhaps. Graphite is the most stable form of carbon, but it can release carbon emissions during a process called spheroidisation during which carbon flakes are placed in a mechanical process that rounds the particles. It’s a process that improves anode performance, but some flakes are lost and produce emissions. Most carbon emissions associated with graphite, however, come from the carbon-based fossil fuels that power the processes of its manufacturing into products.

“Graphite” by photographer Alchemist hp, 2014. Creative Commons 3.0.

Because it is pure carbon, graphite can become coal, and could theoretically be used as a fuel. But it is so valuable in so many other applications, like batteries, that its future as a fuel is most unlikely and environmentally undesirable. But there is one other high value thing that graphite, under very high pressure and intense heat, could become – a diamond.

A diamond is carbon. Image: “Tacori 2620 Round Diamond” by TQ Diamonds, 2010. Creative Commons 3.0.

Karn, Raushan and Eswara Prasad. “Graphite Recycling Market: 2022 – 2031.” Allied Market Research Report A31811. https://www.alliedmarketresearch.com/graphite-recycling-market-A31811

Nobel Prize. “The Nobel Prize in Physics 2010.” https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2010/summary/

Novoselov, K. S. et al., “Electric Field Effect in Atomically Thin Carbon Films.” 22 October 2004, Science, Volume 306, Issue 5696, pages: 666-669. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1102896

Shang, Zhen, et al. “Recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries in view of graphite recovery: A review. 2024. eTransportation, Volume 20, May 2024, 100320. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2590116824000109

Smallman, R. E. (CBE), et al. “Carbon Range.” Modern Physical Metallurgy and Materials Engineering (Sixth Edition), 1999. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/carbon-range

Pencils.com. “What is a No. 2 Pencil?” https://pencils.com/pages/no-2-pencil

World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). Graphite and its Applications. 2023. ISBN: 978-92-805-3513-6. https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo-pub-1083-en-patent-landscape-report-graphite-and-its-applicatinos.pdf

Zhang, Y, Small, J.P., Pontius, W.V., Kim, P. “Fabrication and electric-field-dependent transport measurements of mesoscopic graphite devices.” Applied Physics Letters. 86 (7): 073104. https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0410314

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

July 10, 2024
by Building The World
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WATER/ENERGY: Deep Seabed Mining

The deep seabed is home to marine life, but also contains minerals now subject to mining. Image: “Marine Life” by Jerred Seveyka, Yakima Valley College, 2020. Creative Commons 2.0. Included with appreciation.

The International Seabed Authority (ISA) finance committee begins this week to build upon legal and technical committee recommendations regarding whether to allow robotic bulldozers to rip up the deep seabed in search of minerals and metals to power renewable energy needed to stop climate change.

There is still time to stop seabed mining before it starts. Image: “Animated Clock” by Wikimedia Deutschland e. V. Animators Kunal Sen & Tisha Pillal. Creative Commons 4.0.

It is more than ironic to mine the deep seabed to stop climate change. It could be irreparably tragic. But there is still time.

World Bank and International Energy Agency estimate a 500% increase in demand for battery metals and minerals like cobalt by 2050. Now, cobalt is mined on land, with some concerns about environmental damage. Is deep seabed better? Do we really need to deploy explosives and bulldozers to blast open seamounts and crusts for cobalt, manganese, nickel, titanium? Not only will such invasive actions damage the direct area, but ocean currents certainly will carry the effects further.

Clarion-Clipperton Zone, between Hawaii and Mexico, contains more minerals than all the land-based supply. But should we mine the deep seabed? Image: “Clarion-Clipperton Zone” by NOAA, 2011. Public Domain.

The deep seabed’s seamounts and crusts – the same environments where minerals are formed – are habitats of corals, crabs, fish, sea stars, and marine seagrasses of more than 70 species. Recently, the UK’s National Oceanography Centre’s Seabed Mining and Resilience To Experimental Impact (SMARTEX) explored the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) between Hawaii and Mexico, finding new lifeforms including a sponge with the longest-known lifespan on Earth – 15,000 years. The CCZ is home to vast marine life, including 5,578 species – 88% of which are newly discovered and not even named. The CCZ’s polymetallic nodules contain more key metals than the entire world’s land-based reserves, making it prime prospecting territory. But is it necessary? Do we really need deep seabed mining for minerals like cobalt?

Cobalt mined in Schneeberg, Saxony, Germany. Image by photographer Privoksalnaja, 2013. Public Domain.

Cobalt is recyclable and reusable. So is nickel. Companies and governments that use such minerals find it easier to obtain “virgin” mineral resources than to engage in recycling. European Commission currently proposes negating Directive 2006/66/EC and upgrading Regulation (EU) No 2019/1020 to require more recycling. Cobalt and copper are largely recycled but most minerals and metals have recycling rates under 34%; some just 1%.

Should the International Seabed Authority (ISA) call for a moratorium on exploitation mining? Now is the time to express your opinion. “ISA Logo” Public Domain.

The International Seabed Authority (ISA) issues and approves contracts for exploration of the deep seabed beyond national territories. ISA has the power to grant exploitation – mining. Recent actions by member nation Nauru triggered an acceleration that may lead to exploitation contracts as soon as this summer. Right now, ISA’s future leadership is about to be decided in a coming election. It is a critical time. The marine environment needs your support now.

Marine life needs your support. ISA is about to decide the future. Express your opinion while there is still time. Image: “Aluterus scriptus” by photographer Peter Cremer, 2011. Creative Commons 4.0.

Like outer space, the deep seabed belongs to everyone on Earth. The Clarion-Clipperton Zone (outside of national jurisdiction of coastal abutters) belongs to you. Will you join Sir David Attenborough and other scientists to call for the International Seabed Authority to enact a moratorium on exploitation contracts for seabed mining? Sign the petition here.

Don’t let the sun set on the time to express your opinion on seabed mining. Image: “Wood Point Jetty Sunset” by John, 2002. Creative Commons 2.0.

Brooke, K. Lusk. “Buried Treasure and Speedo Diplomacy.” Renewing the World: Casebook for Leadership in Water (2024) Case #6: pages 55-66. ISBN: 979-8-9850359-5-7. https://renewingtheworld.com

Brooke, K. Lusk “Deep Seabed Mining.” 18 July 2023. Building the World Blog. https://blogs.umb.edu/buildingtheworld/2023/07/13/water-energy-deep-seabed-mining-part-2/

European Commission. “European Commission Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council concerning batteries and waste batteries, repealing Directive 2006/66/EC and amending Regulation (EU) No 2019/1020.

Greenpeace. “Stop Seabed Mining Before It Starts.” https://www.greenpeace.org/international/act/stop-deep-sea-mining/

International Seabed Authority (ISA). https://www.isa.org.jm

Lipton, Eric. “Fight Over Seabed Agency Leadership Turns Nasty.” 4 July 2024. New York Times. https://wwwnytimes.com/2024/07/04/us/politics/seabed-agency-mining.html

Miller, K.A., et al., “Challenging the Need for Deep Seabed Mining From the Perspective of Metal Demand, Biodiversity, Ecosystems Services, and Benefit Sharing.” 28 July 2021. Frontiers in Marine Science: Ocean Sciences and Ethics. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2021.706161/full

Ocean Foundation, The. “Defend the Deep.” FILM by Richard Charter of The Ocean Foundation and Liz Rubin of Ecodeo https://youtu.be/C4uu03DiVhE?si=Wa1ZAeavBJ_N2Bd2

Ocean Foundation, The. “Deep Seabed Mining.” https://oceanfdn.org/deep-seabed-mining/

Oceanographic. “Over 5,000 new species discovered in the Pacific’s deep sea.” 26 May 2023. https://oceanographicmagazine.com/news/5,000-new-species-found-in-clarion-clipperton-zone/

Rabone, Muriel, et al., “How many metazoan species live in the world’s largest mineral exploration area?” 19 June 2023. Current Biology. Volume 33, Issue 12, Pages 2383-2396, E5. https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(23)00534-1

SMARTEX. “Seabed Mining and Resilience to Experimental Impact.” https://smartexccz.org

Starr, Michelle. “Alien-Looking Species Seen For First Time Ever in Ocean’s Darkest Depths.” 7 June 2024. https://www.sciencealert.com/alien-looking-species-seen-for-first-time-ever-in-oceans-darkest-depths

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). “Recycling Rates of Metals: A status report.” 2011. ISBN: 978-92-807-3161-3. https://www.resourcepanel.org/reports/recyclilng-rates-metals

World Wildlife Fund. “Future mineral demand can be met without deep seabed mining as innovative technology can cut mineral se by 58%.” 28 November 2022. https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?7087466/Future-mineral-demand-can-be-met-without-deep-seabed-mining-as-innovative-technology-can-cut-mineral-use-by-58

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

July 4, 2024
by Building The World
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CITIES: Fireworks? Or a New Sky!

July 2024: month of celebrations and aerial art. Is it time for a new sky? Image: “Everlasting Fireworks” from Nagaoka Festival 2012, looped by Jahobr, 2020. Creative Commons 3.0 Included with appreciation.

July 2024: a month of celebratory aerial art. It is time for a new sky?

“Boston Pops Esplanade Orchestra” by Garrett A. Wollman, Creative Commons 2.0. Included with appreciation.

July 4: In the United States, today marks Independence Day with festive sky illuminations over cityscapes from Alabama (“Thunder on the Mountain”) and Arizona (Scottsdale’s WestWorld) to Massachusetts with the Boston Pops on the city’s Esplanade playing the war-related “1812 Overture ” complete with cannon fire supplied by 101st Field Artillery accompanied by fireworks, and James Taylor at Tanglewood, all the way to Wyoming where Lander hosts a rodeo and celestial conflagration.

“Fly Over Bastille Day, 2017.” by Chief Petty Officer Michael McNabb, 2017. Public Domain. Included with appreciation.

July 14: Bastille Day follows suit. Fireworks with the Eiffel Tower as background are a classic on this National Day. There a military parade on the Champs-Elysées. Some would observe that many national anthems celebrate war (can we celebrate peace?). Fireworks clog already-polluted urban air.

“Olympic rings in the Place du Trocadéro” by .Anja, 2017. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.

July 26: the Paris Olympics will feature 10,500 athletes floating along the Seine river in national team boats, with opening ceremony finale at the Trocadéro. Fireworks often illumine Olympic celebrations.

TIME FOR A NEW SKY?

Time for a New Sky? Image: “New” by Neji. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.

But there are at least two public health reasons why fireworks should no longer be the light show of choice: urban pollution and risk of wildfires. And now, there is a technological opportunity to consider a new sky.

AIR POLLUTION

Air over cities can improve. “Fanhe Town, Tieling, China: 10 day interval contrast” by Tomskyhaha, 2019. Included with appreciation.

Air pollution and urban smog are a global problem. But this July, two places may have options for cleaner air. In the USA, many cities suffer air quality issues from ozone with Los Angeles, California the worst, followed by Phoenix, Arizona; Denver, Colorado; Houston, Texas; Las Vegas, Nevada; Chicago, Illinois; and Albuquerque, New Mexico having trouble (descending order). And then there is particulate pollution – deadly to lungs where tiny pieces lodge, causing chronic conditions and also deadly disease. From Bakersfield, Fresno, San Francisco/Oakland, and Los Angeles in California (highest) to Corpus Christi, Texas and Las Vegas, Nevada, the health of urban citizens is at risk.

Paris suffers air quality problems well above World Health Organization recommended limits. Levels of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and particulate matter have declined since France placed limits on diesel-fueled vehicles, but clouding the skies with explosions, however artistic, stresses the respiratory tracts of viewers, not to mention Earth’s atmosphere. Figures reveal that 7,900 premature deaths could have been avoided in Paris in 2022 if pollution were better controlled. What about 2024?

WILDFIRES

Wildfires in Canada are so large they can be seen from space. European Space Agency (ESA), Sentinel-2A, observed: “Athabasca River, near Fort McMurray fire, Alberta, Canada.” Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation to ESA.

Climate change has brought increasing drought and with it, wildfires. In the United States, California is so prone to wildfires that the state established a tracking dashboard for residents to evaluate daily risk. So far, this summer has seen the Basin fire covering 13,980 acres (26% contained); the Bolt 3-2 fire damaging 10, 353 acres (98% contained). To date, 147,012 acres have burned: up 394%. The site also lists water shortages. Canada also suffered extensive wildfire damage in recent years (see above images from Sentinel-2A).

Did you know that wildfires peak around holidays when local folks set off their own fireworks at their house or area field? According to the US Forest Service, wildfires saw a predictable spike on July 4 during the period of 1992 to 2020. So-called “Roman candles” in Washington, DC burned down a 76-person residential building last week. In 2023, 9,700 people sought hospital emergency treatment for firework-linked injuries: half were children.

A NEW SKY

Drones offer new sky art. Image: “Intel Drone 100 Light Show” by Ars Electronica Futurelab, 2015. Photography by Preetam Choudhury, 2015. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.

With threats of air pollution and wildfires, some cities are opting out of traditional fireworks and turning to drone sky art. Boulder, Colorado pivoted to drone shows after the Marshall Fire (2021/22) took two lives and 6,000 acres (2,428 hectares). California’s La Jolla and Ocean Beach opted for sky animations six years ago. Napa, a city known for festive toasts, will take precaution in the midst of a dangerous heat wave with attendant fire risks to present July 4th 2024 air choreography by 400 drones. In the UK, at the coronation of King Charles III, the light show was delivered by drones. At the recent Tokyo Olympics, drones ascended to offer sky art.

Drones are becoming a good investment: the market has grown from nil to $1 billion in 2021. Drone stocks are soaring – some as high as the new sky art we may see this July.

Technology offers an opportunity for a new sky. Is now the time? “6/60/Dronc gif” by BQ20 H. Vargas, 2020. Creative Commons 4.0 Included with appreciation.

For a light show, by drone, click here.

American Lung Association. “State of the Air: Most Polluted Cities in 2024.” https://www.lung.org/research/sota/city-rankings/most-polluted-cities

Brooke, K. Lusk. “A New Sky.” 4 July 2023. Building the World Blog. https://blogs.umb.edu/buildingtheworld/2023/07/04/cities-wildfires-fireworks-and-a-new-sky/

Bogle, Jeff. “The Best Fireworks Displays in Every State.” 27 June 2024. Reader’s Digest.

Calmatters. “Track California Wildfires 2024.” https://calmatters.org/california-wildfire-map-tracker/

Kiszla, Cameron. “Fireworks can be breathtaking in more ways than one.” 3 July 2024. KTLA. https://ktla.com/news/local-news/fireworks-air-quality/

Maggiacomo, Taylor. “You don’t need your own fireworks to celebrate July 4.”4 July 2024. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/live/2024/07’02/opinion/thepoint/you-dont-need-your-own-fireworks-to-celebrae-july-4

Napa, California. “Drone Show to Light Up Napa’s 4th of July Celebrations.” https://www.cityofnapa.org/CivicAlerts.aspx?AID=716.

RFI. “Paris air pollution still too high.” https://www.rfi.fr/en/france/20230413-paris-air-pollution-still-too-high-despite-slight-improvement

Tchaikovsky, Pyotr Ilyich. “1812 Overture – with Cannons” listen here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QUpuAvQQrC0

Williams, Ashley R. “Some US cities are replacing 4th of July fireworks with environmentally friendly drones.” 2 July 2023. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2023/07/02/us/drones-replace-july-fourth-fireworks-trnd

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

June 20, 2024
by Building The World
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ENERGY/WATER: Summer – Full Steam Ahead

Steam is needed to brew beer. Image” “THAT is what I like,” by photographer Alan Levine, 2012. Creative Commons 2.0. Included with appreciation.

Today is the solstice. It’s summer – in some parts of the world – perfect weather for enjoying a cold drink on a hot day. Chances are that beverage, and its glass, were brought to you by steam. Brewing craft beer, sterilizing dental or medical instruments, cooking, heating – all these activities require steam. Fossil fuels power 73% of energy in the United States: 40% is used to make steam. Usually produced by boilers, powered by coal, gas, or oil, the industry standard could soon change.

Beer brewing may be the same, but steam is changing. Image: “Beer at the bottom of a glass” by photographer Specious, 2009. Creative Commons. Included with appreciation.

Transitioning to a new energy source often requires installing new, expensive infrastructure – think electric vehicles and charging stations. But if the same infrastructure could be used, phasing out and phasing in could be seamless. That is the case with emerging technology of green steam, A similar advantage can be found in biofuels for aviation: sustainable aviation fuels can be pumped into jet aircraft now using fossil-based kerosene. Saving costs of building new infrastructure, saving costs of removing old systems, saving jobs by keeping the same personnel, and saving energy – it is a win worth getting steamed up about.

Aeolipile – from Knight’s American Mechanical Dictionary, 1876. Image: Public Domain.

The first steam engine, called the aeolipile was described by Vitruvius who also wrote about the Roman Aqueducts. In 1712, Thomas Newcomen, said by some to be the progenitor of the Industrial Revolution, invented an atmospheric engine powered by steam – it pumped water out of coal mines, thus advancing the use of coal for energy. Since Newcomen, steam has been made by burning coal, or other fossil carbon-based fuels.

How coal powers steam. Image: “Coal-fired power plant diagram,” by Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), 2013. Public Domain.

Enter Spirax Sarco. The UK-based powerhouse is testing a zero-carbon boiler for a food manufacturer. The food and beverage industry produces 11% of the world’s greenhouse gases – same as the total emissions for Belgium. The food and beverage industry contributes $412 billion to the U.S. economy. In the EU, the industry employs 4 million people. Developing zero carbon steam technologies for this industry will help to meet global climate goals.

Steam is a natural phenomenon. Image: “Grand Prismatic Spring with steam rising from Excelsior Geyser.” by Frank Kovalcheck, 2008. Creative Commons 2.0. Included with appreciation.

Steam didn’t need to be invented. It has been a product of the Earth longer than humans have been on the planet. Visit Iceland and you’ll see steam rising from the geysers. Steam uses water: in a drought-threatened world, more efficient steam can save water and reuse this critical resource. Beer brewing is one example of using water and steam, with a few other ingredients. The beverage is so traditional it is made by the monks of the Abbey of Our Lady of Saint-Remy, Belgium, a Cistercian Order of Strict Observance. You can’t enter the monastery, but you can toast with their beer, made by traditional processes.

“Brewery in the Abbey of Our Lady of Saint-Remy, Belgium, of the Cistercian Order of Strict Observance.” By photographer, Luca Galuzzi. Creative Commons 2.5. Included with appreciaiton.

Enter AtmosZero. The US-based start-up company that just received Series A funding by Engine Ventures along with backing by Constellation Energy Corporation, Energy Impact Partners, Starlight Ventures, and AENU, is developing a boiler driven by heat pump technology. The U.S. Department of Energy awarded AtmosZero a $3 million grant for Industrial Efficiency and Decarbonization. The innovative Boiler 2.0 is a “drop-in” system that can replace carbon fossil-fueled equipment. The system generates two times more heat than its energy input. An early adopter and beta-tester: New Belgium Brewing, a craft beer company in Colorado. Cheers!

Can green steam decarbonize the beverage industry? Image: “Absinthe Robetter” by Privat-Livemont, 1896. U.S. Library of Congress. Public Domain.

AENU. https://www.aenu.com

AtmosZero. https://atmoszero.energy

Brooke, K. Lusk. “TRANSPORT: New ‘Wingprint’ for Aviation.” 29 November 2023. Building the World Blog. https://blogs.umb.edu/buildingtheworld/2023/11/29/transport-new-wingprint-for-aviation/

Constellation Energy Corporation. https://www.constellationenergy.com

Energy Impact Partners. https://www.energyimpactpartners.com

Engine Ventures. https://engineventures.com

National Museums Scotland. “Thomas Newcomen’s Steam Engine.” https://www.nms.ac.uk/explore-our-collections/stories/science-and-technology/newcomen-engine/

New Belgium Brewing. https://www.newbelgium.com

SpiraxSarco. https:spiraxsarco.com

Starlight Ventures. https://starlight.vc

Vitruvius. De Architectura. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Ronan/Texts/Vitruvius/home,html

Winrow, Michael. “Why green steam is a hot issue for business.” 25 April 2024. BBC.com. https//www.bbc.com/news/business-68687140

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

June 8, 2024
by Building The World
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WATER: World Oceans Day

World Ocean Map by Quizimodo, 2007. Dedicated to the public domain by the artist and included with appreciation.

June 8 is World Oceans Day, launched in 2016 by its Youth Advisory Council, and supporting this year’s 2024 theme: “Catalyzing Action for Our Ocean & Climate” highlighting the message of one ocean, one climate, one future – together.” Here are three ways you can participate:

Protect the ocean and all who live within our blue commons. Image: “Florescent Coral” by Erin Rod, 2019. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.

Protect the High Seas – did you know that not every country has ratified the High Seas Treaty? Areas beyond national jurisdiction belong to the whole world – including you. If your country has yet to act, contact leaders to urge signing now. Related to the High Seas Treaty is the initiative to protect 30% of ocean habitat by 2030. Check who’s on board here.

The deep seabed contains minerals: should we permit mining? Now is the time to become involved in this decision. The deep seabed belongs to all – including you. Image: “Deep Sea Mining Possible Zonex” by NOAA, 2011. Public Domain. Included with appreciation.

Defend the Deep – ironically, signatories of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) are also those who may apply to the International Seabed Authority for contracts permitting deep seabed mining. This summer, decisions will be made regarding mining the seabed for minerals like cobalt. The argument for is that renewable energy requires battery storage powered by these minerals, now becoming depleted on land but abundant in the deep seabed. The argument against is that mining the deep seabed will surely be environmentally dangerous and very difficult to remediate. According to studies verified by Sir David Attenborough and hundreds of scientists, metals and minerals like cobalt are 100% recyclable. We do not need to mine the sea to power the future. Voice your opinion here.

Pathway of plastic to ocean. How can you support the Global Plastics Treaty? Image: Our World in Data, CC4.0. included with appreciation.

Support the Global Plastics Treaty – how many times have you spotted plastic litter on a beach, or seen a photo of the tragic consequences of plastic for marine life? In Nairobi, the UN Environment Assembly agreed to an international legally binding agreement to address the plastic production cycle from design to disposal. Support the world’s development of a global plastics treaty here.

Celebrate and support World Ocean Day. Image: “Person standing near ocean wave in Porto Covo, Portugal” by photographer Alvesgaspar, 2013. CC4.0. Included with appreciation.

Celebrate and share World Oceans Day. A social media toolkit to help you and your community share the message is available here.

Brooke, K. Lusk. “Speedo Diplomacy – Deep Seabed Mining and Marine Preservation.” Pages 56 – 67.” Renewing the World: Casebook for Leadership in Water. ISBN: 979-8-9850359-5-7. https://renewingtheworld.com

Brooke, K. Lusk and Zoë G. Quinn. “Deep Seabed Mining.” 13 July 2023. https://blogs.umb.edu/buildingtheworld/2023/07/13/water-energy-deep-seabed-mining-part-2/

International Seabed Authority. https://isa.org.jm

Leape, J., et al., (2020) Technology, data and new models for sustainably managing ocean resources.” World Resources Institute Blue Paper. https://www.oceanpanel.org/blue-papers/technology-data-and-new-models-sustainably managing ocean resources

NASA. “Video of Ocean in celebration of Earth Day 50th anniversary,” 2020. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Earth_Day_2020_-_Gulf_Stream_ocean_current_pull_out_to_Earth_observing_fleet.webm

Stanford Center for Ocean Solutions. https://profiles.stanford.edu/59063

United Nations. “Oceans and Law of the Sea – United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).” 1982. https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreement/texts/unclos/UNCLOS-TOC.htm

United Nations. “Resolution to end plastic pollution.” 2 March 2022. UNEP/EA.5/.

World Wildlife Fund. “Future mineral demand can be met without deep seabed mining as innovative technology can cut mineral use by 58%.” 28 November 2022. https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?7087466/Future-mineral-demand-can-be-met-without-deep-seabed-mining-as-innovative-technology-can-cut-mineral-use-by-58

World Wildlife Fund. “Global Plastics Treaty.” https://wwf.panda.org/act/plastic_pollution_treaty/

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

May 3, 2024
by Building The World
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ENERGY: Maximizing Minerals, Part 2 – Nickel

Nickel is critical to the renewable energy revolution. Image: “Section of pure nickel accretion,” by Images of Elements, 2009. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.

It’s driving the electric vehicle and renewable energy revolution, but nickel has vexed miners and chemists since the earliest days. In fact, nickel got its name because of its difficult nature. Nickel – from German “Kupfernickel” or “Old Nick’s Copper.” Miners who discovered nickel thought it was copper but were never able to extract copper from it. They named it after their term for the devil: “Old Nick.” In a side note, nickel’s etymology also gives us a favorite bread: “Pumpernickel,” perhaps because the devil enjoyed this dark loaf.

“Old Nick – the Devil” by Florian Rokita, 1936. From National Gallery of Art, acquisition 1943.8.16361, public domain. Included with appreciation.

.Nickel is valuable for its ferromagnetic properties: it is one of four with such powers. The others are cobalt, gadolinium, and iron. Over 60% of world nickel production makes its way to becoming stainless steel.

Nickel is used in making stainless steel. Image: Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe & Tube” by photographer Jatinsanghvi. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.

When such steel is no longer serviceable, it can be scrapped and recycled, turning the nickel back into use for more stainless steel, or – increasingly – batteries including nickel-cadmium or NiCad batteries.

Nickel is used in rechargeable batteries. Image: “NiCad batteries” by photography Boffy. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.

Presently, only 4% of the world’s nickel is used in rechargeable batteries, but with electric vehicles that market is growing, accelerating demand. Another developing use for nickel – wind turbine blades, where nickel is used as a superalloy.

Swiss coin made of 100% nickel. “5 scheizer Franken hinten” by photographer Manuel Anastácio, 2000. Public Domain by Article 5 of Swiss Copyright Act. Included with appreciation.

Nickel was at one time so abundant that in 1881, a coin in Swiss currency was made from pure nickel. In the United States, the coin called the “nickel” was introduced in 1857, but it was made with nickel alloyed with copper.

Jefferson Nickel, designed by sculptor Felix Schlag (1892-1974) who was paid $1,000 for the work, was made of only part nickel, alloyed with copper. Image: U.S. Historical Library, 1938. Public Domain: included with appreciation.

Despite its name as an American coin (the origin of the term is actually German), there is not much nickel found in the United States, although there is a mine in Riddle, Oregon that produced 15,000 tons (in 1996). That same year, Russian nickel mines yielded 230,000 tons, followed by Canada (183,000 tons), Australia (113,000 tons), and Indonesia (90,000 tons).Trading as a commodity, nickel’s pricing per ton ranged from 15,614 to 25, 076 in 2024. Metals like nickel are traded on the London Metal Exchange (LME).

Nickel is traded on the London Metal Exchange (LME). Image by photographer Kreepin Deth, 2009. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.

Like cobalt, nickel can be found in the deep seabed. In fact, exchange prices – like those on the London Metal Exchange – for nickel and cobalt, are influenced by estimates of deposits located in the seabed. In particular, cobalt and nickel are inter-related, often found together. On land, their mining is known, although not often enough followed by recycling and re-use. Under leagues of water, the process is not tested, and is also contested.

Nickel and cobalt are both targeted for deep seabed mining: contracts are soon to be defined. You can vote your opinion here. Image: “Deep seabed mining schematic” by G. Mannearts. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.

Another place nickel may be found is in the sky. Asteroids, especially those categorized as M-type or M-class, contain iron and nickel. But the search will be long: only 8% of asteroids, like Lutetia (see in image below) are M-type.

M-Type asteroids like Lutetia may contain nickel. Image: NASA/JPL-CalTech/JAXA/ESA, 2011. Creative Commons0 1.0, public domain. Included with appreciation.

Cobalt, nickel, and other minerals and metals that are critical for use in renewable energy are recyclable and reusable. Yet, the International Seabed Authority is reviewing contracts for nickel mining. Asteroid mining companies are also in the race. But nickel recycling may be a better bet and more certain investment. Nickel recycling has been expensive and difficult, requiring high heat and releasing toxic fumes. In former times, it may have seemed easier to obtain primary nickel (mined) than to pay for secondary nickel (recycled). Tax credits and rebates could help.

Nickel is 100% recyclable. Image: “Reduce, Reuse, Recycle.” by photographer Nadine3013. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.

But innovation-leading companies including Aqua Metals in Reno, Nevada, USA, and ABTC, as well as the Nevada Center for Applied Research (NCAR) at the University of Nevada, Reno and Greentown Labs, may change the way we use – and reuse – nickel. Presently 68% of all nickel already mined is recycled, but 17% is still dumped in landfills. Will the recent Declaration of Metals Industry Recycling Principles help to make mineral and metal recycling the industry standard?

Pure nickel by photographer Jurii, 2009. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.

While fossil fuels are used up when combusted (leaving greenhouse gases), minerals and metals are not depleted because they only conduct and store energy. Minerals and metals can be recycled and reused. Have a nickel in your pocket? Be the change.

Aqua Metals. https://aquametals.com

Brooke, K. Lusk. “Maximizing Minerals, Part 1, Cobalt.” https://blogs.umb.edu/buildingtheworld/2024/04/17/energy-water-maximizing-minerals/

Liberman, Anatoly. “Multifarious Devils: Pumpernickel, Nickel, and Old Nick,” 12 June 2013. Oxford University Press Blog. https://blog.oup.com/2013/06/pumpernickel-etymology-word-origin/

Nevada Center for Applied Research, University of Nevada, Reno. https://unr.edu/ncar

Nickel Institute. “Nickel.” https://nickelinstitute.org

United States Geological Survey (USGS). Mineral Resources Program. https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2011/3081/pdf/fs2011-3081.pdf

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

April 17, 2024
by Building The World
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ENERGY/WATER: Maximizing Minerals

Cobalt is essential for supporting renewable energy. Land-based cobalt mining is difficult, and sea-based is dangerous. Cobalt is 100% recyclable and reusable. How can we maximize minerals? Image: “Cobalt Mineral” by Bhavss1214. Creative Commons 4.0 Included with appreciation.

International Energy Agency predicts 500% increase in demand for minerals like cobalt by 2050. Cobalt is generally associated with mining, and more than half of land-based global cobalt reserves are in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The Kamoto mine in Katanga and the Metalkol RTE run by Eurasian Resources Group (ERG) are noteworthy; ERG joined the Responsible Minerals Assurance Process as part of the Responsible Minerals Initiative that prohibits certain labor practices in the DRC mining industry. But do we need a Responsible Minerals Initiative for the sea?

Land-based mines can inflict environmental damage and scars: what would ocean mining do? “Kalgoorlie: “The Big Pit” by Brian Voon Yee Yap, 2005. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.

Land-based mining is running out of minerals like cobalt. So, attention is now turning to the deep seabed, especially the mineral-rich Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ). To get an idea of the size of the CCZ, it is as wide as the continental United States, and stretches across the Pacific from Mexico to Hawaii. Here may be found polymetallic nodules containing manganese, sulfide deposits, and ferromanganese crusts with cobalt, manganese, nickel, titanium – even gold. The gold alone is worth $150 trillion. Polymetallic nodules in the deep seabed contain more key metals than the entire world’s land-based reserves.

“Polymetallic nodules on the seabed of CCZ” by Rov Kiel 6000, Geomar Bilddatenbank, 2015. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.

Some mineral deposits lie within national exclusive economic zones (EEZ) of coastal countries who have rights to their waters (and seabed minerals) within 200 nautical miles/230 land miles (370 km). Everything beyond belongs to everyone, even landlocked countries. This is the blue commons. It is related to the diplomatic peace principle of the Suez Canal – “open to all nations in times of war and peace.” The principle was first defined by Hugo Grotius (1583-1645) in the Latin phrase mare liberum (sea + free).

Can we find peace in the blue commons? “Mare Liberum” by Hugo Grotius, 1609. This image is from the archives of the Peace Palace, The Hague, Netherlands. Creative Commons0. 1.0, public domain. Included with appreciation.

The deep seabed is governed by the International Seabed Authority (ISA), a United Nations agency authorized as part of the Law of the Sea. Any signatory nation of the Law of the Sea may apply for a contract authorizing exploration of the seabed. After a number of exploration years, that country may apply to move towards exploitation – mining. Private partners are allowed, so some very small countries like Nauru have thus exercised their rights with some very big partners like The Metals Company.

Where is Nauru? Image: “Nauru on the globe” by graphic artist TUBS. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.

But there is more in the deep sea than minerals. Research ship James Cook just completed a study of marine species in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone. As many as 5,000 never-yet-named species may be living in the CCZ. Some of species thrive in symbiotic exchange with polymetallic nodules. It takes millions of years to build a polymetallic nodule of just 8 inches (20 centimeters). Imagine the disruption and environmental damage if an autonomous robotic bulldozer were to rake up the nodules. And, while mineral mining on land can result in accidents and environmental damage, imagine what that would look like undersea – using explosives and heavy machinery. Will the UN Convention on Biological Diversity protect the CCZ?

“Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ)” by NOAA, 2011. Public Domain. Included with appreciation.

Some believe mining deep seabed minerals is the only way we can get to a fully renewable energy future; other science and technology experts state we can optimize present use of metals and minerals by more than 50%, and not need to invade the seabed. And, it is critical to note that the minerals like cobalt, lithium, and nickel – essential for renewable energy conductivity and storage – are recyclable and reusable.

Cobalt, Lithium, and Nickel are recyclable and reusable. We can do more – before we do more damage. How can you help to maximize minerals? Image: “Universal Recycling Symbol” Public Domain. Included with appreciation.

ISA is nearing approval of deep seabed mining contracts for exploitation. Environmental advocates like Sir David Attenborough, Dr. Sylvia Earle, and Lewis Pugh have joined hundreds of scientists who recommend a moratorium on decisions to advance deep seabed mining. The UK-based James Cook voyage is part of the Seabed Mining and Resilience to Experimental Impact (SMARTEX). If you would like to convey your opinions and recommendations, you may contact the ISA here. Other options are to communicate with SMARTEX here.

Marine life in the CCZ needs your vote. Image: “Opisthoteuthis agassizii” by NOAA, 2019. Creative Commons 2.0. Included with appreciation.

BBC and Natural History Museum. “New Life Forms Discovered in CCZ.” VIDEO. https://www.bbc.com/reel/video/p0fsyh1g/the-alien-lifeforms-discovered-in-the-deep-ocean

Bhujbal, Prajakta. “10 minerals that can be recycled.” 5 February 2022. Recycling. https://blog.mywastesolution.com/10-minerals-that-can-be-recycled/

Brooke, K. Lusk. “Speedo Diplomacy: Deep Sea Mining and Marine Protected Areas,” pages 55-66, Renewing the World: Casebook for Leadership in Water. 2024. ISBN: 979-8-9850359-5-7. Available on Amazon and at https://renewingtheworld.com

Hunt, Katie. “Deep-sea expedition captures stunning images of creatures in Pacific mining zone.” 3 April 2024. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2024/04/02/world/new-species-pacific-deep-sea-mining-zone-scn?cid-ios.app

Earle, Sylvia. Mission Blue/The Sylvia Earle Alliance. https://missionblue.org

Hein, James R. and Kira Miel, USGS. Pacific Coastal and Marine Science Center. “Deep-ocean polymetallic nodules and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts in the global ocean: New sources for critical metals.” 21 April 2022. http://www.usgs.gov/publications/deep-ocean-polymetallic-noduules-and-cobalt-rich-ferromanganese-crusts-global-ocean-new

International Seabed Authority (ISA) https://www.isa.org.jm

Lewis Pugh Foundation. https://lewispughfoundation.org

Miller, K.A., et al., “Challenging the need for deep seabed mining from the perspective of metal demand, biodiversity, ecosystems services, and benefit sharing.” Frontiers, Marine Ecosystem Ecology, Volume 8 – 2021. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2021.706161

Ostrum, Elinor. Governing the Commons. ISBN: 97800-521-40599-7

The Metals Company. https://metals.co

MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology). “Deep Seabed Mining” VIDEO https://youtu.be/Lwq1j3nOODA?si=ZJkqNLmcNcsGicwT

Responsible Minerals Initiative (RMI). https://www.responsiblemineralsinitiative.org

SMARTEX. https://smartexccz.org

United Nations. “United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.” https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/unclos_3.pdf

United Nations. “Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.” Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, CBD/COP/DEC/15/4, 19 December 2022. https://www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop-15/cop-15-dec-04-en.pdf

Vox. “The race to mine the bottom of the ocean.” 2023. VOX https://youtu.be/pf1GvrUqeIA?si=CXneRsA77m4_f

Whittaker, Bill, et al., “National security leaders worry about U.S. failure to ratify Law of the Sea treaty.” 24 March 2024. CBS News. Includes VIDEO. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/national-security-economic-concerns-us-law-of-the-sea-treaty-60-minutes/

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U