Building the World

Year 2019: Space

 

FIVE FOUNDATIONS FOR

BUILDING THE FUTURE

The Fifth Foundation:

 SPACE

Space: “Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Space.” Image: wikimedia.

 

I don’t think the human race will survive the

next thousand years unless we spread into space.

―Stephen Hawking

 

When I orbited Earth in a spaceship,

I saw for the firsttime how beautiful our planet is.

Mankind, let us preserveand increase this beauty, and not destroy it.

―Yuri Gagarin

 

Astronomy compels the soul to look upward,

and leads us from this world to another.

―Plato

 

 

WHY SPACE IS IMPORTANT

When space exploration began, most believed that only governments had sufficient resources to build rockets and undertake exploration into space, and indeed, this was true for decades. Few imagined that private enterprise would decide that it too could venture into planetary and space activities. But it was private enterprise that perfected a rocket that could be launched into space and returned to Earth. By 2018, reusable rockets transformed space enterprise, and will continue to shape it well into the future. Private enterprise continues to rethink space, with ideas for mining, tourism, transport, and habitation. It’s really not surprising that space has attracted entrepreneurship. It’s the ultimate innovation field.

Space goes beyond nations. Americans landed on the moon, walked on it, and even left a U.S. flag there (despite such action being forbidden by the Outer Space Treaty). Lunar terrain is not for sale. Space is beyond the claim of any single nation.

Space is naturally cooperative because of its macro scale. While the American flag appeared on world TV screens in 1969, there are now more than 50,000 objects orbiting in space. While not all of them bear the flag of their country of origin, all do fly invisible flags of their national design, building, and operation. The good news is that while there are many flags, they all fly peacefully together, for now.

Space is collaborative, with partners sharing innovations, costs, personnel, and benefits. Through such collaboration, a learning environment makes it possible to quickly share innovation and new standards. Finding shared standards on a global level allows rapid advance.

Space is an interlocking system of exploration on a grand scale. Because of its unique structure, the space industry can become a learning nexus for all participants. As a result of interactions between public and private interests, the Outer Space Treaty, originallypromulgatedin 1967, as well as related agreements, needs to be refined and updated in light of new world laws that state “Space resources are capable of being appropriated.” (See Appendix C, Luxembourg Law,2017).

Because the inhabitants of Earth are from the water planet, it might be that celestial environments that possess water will offer that essential key to life para uso humano as well as for sustainable agriculture. Here’s how the Luxembourg Treaty puts it:

Celestial bodies can contain substantial usable quantities of frozen water. Space explorers will need water to support themselves and plants they may grow in space vehicles or colonies in the future. Water can also be split into oxygen and hydrogen: the first to provide breathable air, the second as a source of fuel to propel exploratory missions deeper into space and to power living quarters and equipment. 

Sources:

Salter, Alexander. “Space Debris: A Law and Economics Analysis of the Orbital Commons.” Mercatus Working Paper, Mercatus Center, George Mason University, Arlington, VA, USA. September 2015. http://www.mercatus.org/system/files/Salter-Space-Debris.pdf. Viewed 30 April 2018.

 

Seara, Modesto Vázquez. Cosmic International Law. Translated by Elaine Malley. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1965. www.modestoseara.com. Viewed 30 April 2018.

 

Space Resources. “Why is water so vial in space?” http://www.spaceresources.public.lu/en/faq.html. Viewed 30 April 2018.

 

PROBLEMS

“Problem” – portrait of the Rapper, Problem. Germany, 2013. Image: wikimedia

Financing Space

It is estimated that US$100 to $250 billion is spent on space exploration every year. Costs for the International Space Station are equally huge: $112 billion over ten years. Those costs are shared among Canada, Japan, Russia, United States, and ten European nations (Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland). Put in an interesting perspective, however, if Europe’s portion were distributed across the populations of those ten countries, the cost would be equal to one cup of coffee per person per year.

Is such an enormous expense worth it? Can such expenditures be justified when the world faces continuing scarcities of food, healthcare, and education? Proposals for space mining may rebalance expenditures, producing profit.

 

Rocket Failures

In the past, it was assumed that space exploration was too risky and expensive to be undertaken by any entity other than a national government. But in fact commercial partners pursued potentially lucrative projects with the government. In the U.S., General Dynamics Corporation developed Atlas booster rockets, but three failures (two due to the same problem) caused the company to sell its space division to competitor Martin Marietta.

Martin Marietta responded with its Titan III rocket, theoretically capable of carrying two payloads for one launch cost. However, when a project launch was unable to attract two payloads, the project moved ahead anyway with a single payload.

Unfortunately, the rocket failed because the wiring harness could not cope with a single payload. The subsequent failures of two more Atlas rockets further dampened optimism.

Another commercial enterprise suffered a similar fate. Orbital Sciences Corporation (OSC) built a Pegasusbooster specifically designed for smaller payloads. From 1994 to 1996, failure plagued four of ten Pegasusattempts. Learning from those early failures, OSC moved forward successfully with Antares. Failures also dogged McDonnell Douglas to the point that continual problems with its Delta IIIended commercial space flight efforts.

In 1999, a failed mission to Mars became an embarrassment when the orbiter missed its landing. The reason? When discussing measurements, one group of scientists spoke in terms of meters and kilometers, the other group spoke of feet and miles. The cost of that mistake? US$125 million. And mistakes continued: after the metric mix-up, NASA had to announce that mission control had lost contact with the Mars polar lander, at a cost of US$165 million.

 

Space Tragedies

When attempting new things, tragedy often accompanies the effort. In space exploration, such events are always expensive and sometimes disastrous.

      Soyuz

      Russia was the first nation to lose a crew member during space flight. In April 1967, cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov perished when the rocket’s re-entry parachute failed during a flight of Soyuz 1. Four years later, Georgi Dobrovolski, Viktor Patsayev, and Vladislav Volkov died due to decompression complications during their return from a subsequent Soyuzflight. 

      Apollo 1

      Even before the loss of Komarov, the U.S. endured its first space tragedy during a NASA training exercise in January 1967, just before the first manned Apollo space flight. The command module burst into flames, ultimately taking the lives of Roger Chaffee, Virgil (Gus) Grissom, and Edward White. Shortly before the fire, Commander Grissom and his team noticed a foul smell coming from the vehicle’s oxygen system. An hour later, when the air was once again clean, a communications problem emerged. It caused so much noise that Grissom shouted, “How are we going to get to the moon if we can’t talk between two or three buildings?” A moment later, one of the astronauts shouted, “Fire!” Soon thereafter, NASA grounded its humans-in-space program for 18 months.

      Challenger

      On 28 January 1986, NASA’s space shuttle Challenger exploded shortly after takeoff as families, colleagues, and mission control specialists witnessed one of the most horrific failures in space history. Five NASA career astronauts lost their lives,alongwithtwocivilianpioneersincluding“TeacherinSpace”ChristaMcAuliffe.

The space shuttle program was on hold for almost three years after the Challenger tragedy while a commission, authorized by then-President Ronald Reagan, studied the disaster. Investigators discovered that the solid rocket booster failed during liftoff due to the malfunction of an O-ring seal that was part of the booster manufactured by contractor Morton Thiokol. It is rumored that NASA knew about the flaw but pushed ahead with liftoff, driven in part by an organizational culture and an entrenched decision-making system that was unwilling to heed engineers’ warnings. Instead, an optimistic “go fever” took hold, ultimately leading to tragedy.

      Columbia

      In February 2003, the space shuttle Columbia met with disaster as it began re-entry into Earth’s atmosphere. Outer tiles that were supposed to prevent catastrophicheatbuildupcamelooseatsomepointduringthemission,andallseven crew members lost their lives as the vehicle disintegrated during re-entry, scattering debris over large areas of Texas. NASA suspended shuttle operations for two years, which also paused construction of the International SpaceStation.

 

Asteroid Dangers?

Asteroids sometimes engender fear among Earth’s populace, who are afraid that a rogue piece of asteroid might hurtle through space on a trajectory that would endanger Earth’s surface. John Landis, a Stone & Webster engineer and founder of the International Association of Macro Engineering Societies, stated that one of the greatest dangers to Earth is a collision with a major asteroid. Landis, also a nuclear expert, knew that the impact would be dire: it is estimated that such a hit would release energy equivalent to several million nuclear weapons exploding at the same time.

Space Debris

When Sputnik launched in 1957, the sky was a lonely space. Today it is becoming crowded. The next two centuries will see increasing interplanetary traffic and debris, with no system of regulations in place to govern it. The most crowded areas in space will exist in speed lanes between 435 mi to 621 mi (700 km to 1,000 km)—the orbital area now used to view Earth. The proliferation of space flights and resulting space debris will increase by one-third—an optimistic figure—based on the presumption that there will be compliance with the so-called “25-year rule,” defined as the period of time after which a company or nation is required to take down its obsolete equipment that has now become space junk. Failure to observe this rule would be like abandoning a car in the middle of a busy highway after it ran out of gas or a part failed. Participants in the Sixth European Conference on Space Debris (2013) concluded that there has been little compliance with the 25-year rule.

The problem is that it is easier to send something into space than to retrieve it. One option? Space harpoons, a version of those used in the whaling era. The UK’s Jaime Reed reported at the space debris conference that such an approach shows promise. But harpoons are probably not feasible for retrieving small objects, and that worries those who know about the 500,000+ objects already in orbit. Space debris comes in several sizes: pieces lartger than a softball number more than 20,000; pieces the size of a marble or larger number 500,000; and there are millions of pieces of space debris that are so tiny, yet continue to be very dangerous. Recently, space shuttle windows were replaced because of impact by flecks of paint—which sounds small until the specks are traveling at 17,500 mph and hit the window, shattering it. Small, yes, but anyone who has ever fired a BB-gun knows that small pellets can do considerable damage, especially when propelled at high speed, as in orbit.

Making matters worse, collisions create even more debris. In 2007, China conducted a test to see what would happen if it demolished one of its obsolete weather stations. The results were not encouraging. In 2009 the first accidental high-speed collision occurred between two intact artificial satellites in low-Earth orbit. Motorola’s Iridium 33 and Russia’s Kosmos 2251 collided at an altitude of 490 mi (790 km) above Siberia. The collision destroyed both vehicles. Although Iridium was operational at the time of the collision, Kosmoshad been out of service since at least 1995 and could no longer be controlled. Some space engineers estimate that debris from the two collisions in 2007 and 2009 wiped out the previous two decades of efforts to clean up the junk in space. Perhaps enterprising space companies should accelerate research and development of space vacuuming to clean up spaceways.

Another issue that should be addressed by the revised Outer Space Treaty is an update of the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects. Discussions first began in 1963, agreement was reached in 1971, and the Convention was implemented in September 1972. The Convention states: “A launching State shall be absolutely liable to pay compensation for damage caused by its space objects on the surface of the Earth or to aircraft, and liable for damage due to its faults in space.” In June 2014, a declaration by European Telecommunications Satellite Organization Intergovernmental Organization (EUTELSAT/IGO) accepted the same rights and obligations.

Sources:

BBC. “Astronauts tackle air leak on International Space Station.” 31 August 2018. Available from: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-45364155. Viewed 04 September 2018.

 

European Space Agency. 6th European Conference on Space Debris, 2013. Available from: http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Operations/Space_Debris/ Replay_6th_European_Conference_on_Space_Debris_opening_session

 

NASA. “Space Debris and Human Spacecraft.” Available from: https://www.nasa.gov/ mission_pages/station/news/ orbital_debris.html. Viewed: 26 September 2013.

 

United Nations. Office for Outer Space Affairs. “Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects.” September 1972. Available from: http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introliability-convention.html

Wattles, Jackie. “Inside the high-stakes business of tracking space junk.” Money,25 August 2018. Available from:    https://money.cnn.com/2018/08/25/technology/business/agi-space-junk-debris-feature/index.html.  Viewed 04 September 2018.

 

Space Race to Space Force: Military in Space

It was a cocktail party where the caviar and vodka were rumored to be excellent. On a Friday night in October in the year 1957, John Hagan strolled into the Russian reception hoping that, under the influence of legendary schnapps, a few Soviet scientists might reveal that their International Geophysical Year (IGY) project was just as far behind in time and budget as the American effort. Hagan had not even reached the caviar when Walter Sullivan from TheNew York Times slipped out to take a call, rushed back into the room, and whispered something to Richard Porter of the American IGY committee. Breaking news? Sputnik I, launched by the Soviet Union, had just become the first satellite to orbit Earth.

A new expression entered the lexicon: Space Race. During the 1950s and 1960s, both the Soviet Union and then Russia vied with America for dominance in a tight space race. As then-President Lyndon Johnson said: “The simple fact is that we can no longer consider the Russians to be behind us in technology. It took them four years to catch up to our atomic bomb and nine months to catch up to our hydrogen bomb. Now we are trying to catch up to their satellite.” (Building the World, p. 582)

      2007 China: FY-1C, a Game Changer

      As technology and military know-how grew globally, other countries entered the space race. At the same time, many nations also joined COMSAT, the communications satellite consortium that provided the globe with telephone, television, and internet.

From the earliest times, many of these “basketballs in the sky,” as Sputnik was sometimes called, included weather satellites. But the best of technology breaks down, and needs replacement. It’s not easy to launch satellites into orbit; getting them back is even harder. That’s why in 2007, China decommissioned its FY-1C polar orbit satellite of the Fengyun series by shooting at it like target practice. It was a bulls-eye, but the hit resulted in 3,000 pieces of even more dangerous shrapnel now racing through space at 17,000 miles per hour (27,359 km). Some military observers wondered if the effort was weather-related or “whether-related”: was China cleaning up old satellites or testing its ability to shoot down other countries’ satellites?

      Kill Vehicles

Not to be outdone in space shooting practice, America targeted one of its own old surveillance satellites the next year—again without a thought of how to clean up the ensuing debris. So-called “kill vehicles” or ASAT (antisatellite) continue to be developed, although not without incident. On 9 July 1962, American Starfish Prime blew out six satellites, with major collateral damage: 300 street lights went out in Oahu, Hawaii. The sky is presently filled with unintended flying objects, i.e., shreds of blown-out satellites (Hoffman). By 2009, there were an estimated 35,00 objects and pellets zooming through crowded lanes of space traffic.

      Military Branches for Space?

Is space national?Several countries have formed military branches dedicated to space. Russian Space Forces was an independent organization from 1992 to 1997, then it became Strategic Rocket Forces from 2001 to 2011. China has the People’s Liberation Army Strategic Support Force, and there is also the French Joint Space Command.

Other forces are emerging. On 18 June 2018, President Donald Trump called for a Space Force, a sixth branch of the American military, in a speech to the National Space Council. In what may be the shortest authorization in history, then-President Donald J. Trump and General Joseph F. Dunword, Jr., chair of the American Joint Chiefs of Staff had the following exchange: “Got it?”  “We got it.”

A much earlier idea appeared in 2000, when a committee chaired by Donald Rumsfeld suggested grouping all defense activities concerning space into one command. At the 2007 episode by China, which resulted in filling theskywithdangerousflyingmetal,combinedwithotherperceivedthreats,becamethe rallying cry for a military force to defend space.

What should be the future of the military in space? After all, the only things owned, so far, are orbiting satellites, and many of those await decommissioning. Meanwhile, the boldest lines are budget line items. Since the NASA moon landing in 1969, NASA’s share of the U. S. military budget dropped from around 5% to 0.5%. If the U.S. military budget of $600 billion (2016) were apportioned to NASA, what might happen in the sky? Or will it be private industry rather than governments that reach such goals faster, cheaper, and perhaps better?

What can be done about the refusal to move away from a terrestrial view of war? Many things are radically different in space. Using terrestrial warfare methods will not work in space. When a satellite is blown up, it creates progeny—lots and lots of bits that may eventually render space un-enterable for decades or even centuries. It may be that history will change in several ways with the expansion of our civilization into space.

Source:

Davidson, Frank P. and Kathleen Lusk Brooke. Building the World. Vol. 2.  Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2006.

 

Space Treaties: Current or Out of Date?

The date was 1967. People were doing more than looking up at the sky or spooning by the light of the silvery moon. Space laboratories, too, were looking up—way up. Two years later, a human would leave footprints on the moon.

But before all that activity got going, the United Nations developed and entered into force the “Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Explorationand Use of Outer Space,” commonly known as the “Outer Space Treaty.” The agreement has some important principles:

 

  • Exploration of space is for the benefit of all countries and allhumankind
  • Outer space is not subject to national appropriation oroccupation
  • Outer space is to be free of nuclear or other weapons of massdestruction
  • Earth’sMoon and other celestial bodies shall be used exclusively for peaceful
  • purposes
  • Countries shall be liable for damage caused by their space
  • Just a half-century later, private enterprise can be found in many places on the celestial map:
  • Google spurred a competition by offering a $20 million Lunar X
  • Moon Express is a privately financed commercial space
  • Astrobotic, a commercial company, offers a delivery service to the moon,with DHL as a
  • Planetary Resources plans to mine asteroids as potential sources of water and minerals
  • Space X routinely delivers cargo to the International Space
  • Various Virgin Galactic possibilities have extended Sir Richard Branson’s astro/aero empire.

Clearly, none of these enterprises is a country or a state. So how can the actions of private enterprise be regulated by the Outer Space Treaty? According to the United Nations, the 1967 Outer Space Treaty intends to “furnish a general legal basis for the peaceful uses of outer space and providing a framework for the developing law of outer space.” Other treaties deal specifically with certain concepts included in the 1967 Treaty. Other UN treaties provide further possibilities, including:

  • Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Explorationand Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies;(1967)
  • Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts, andthe Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space;(1968)
  • Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused Space Objects;(1972)
  • Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space;(1976)
  • Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and OtherCelestial Bodies;(1984)
  • Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space;(1963)
  • PrinciplesGoverningtheUsebyStatesofArtificialEarthSatellitesfor International Direct Television Broadcasting;(1982)
  • Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space;(1986)
  • Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space;(1992)
  • Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use ofOuter Space for the Benefit in the Interest of All States, taking into Particular Account the Needs of Developing Countries(1996).

Sources:

Astrobotic Technology, Inc. https://www.astrobotic.com/.

Barker, Mike, “Costs of War Linger 100 Years After Combat Ends: AP Analysis,” Huffington Post, 19 March 2013.

BBC.com.  “Is space exploration a waste of money?” 9 December 1999. Accessed 15 October 2015.

European Space Agency. <http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Human_Spaceflight/International_Space_Station/How_ much_does_it_cost>. European Space Agency website, 14 May 2013. Accessed 23 November 2015.

Google Lunar X Prize: https://lunar.xprize.org

“Launch failures: Normal, healthy paranoia,” Space Review. 20 January 2014. Moon Express. https://lunar.xprize.org/teams/moon-express.

Plumer, Brad. NASA Wants to keep the international space station going until 2024. Is that a good idea? Washington Post, 8 January 2014. Available from: https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2014/01/09/nasa-plans-to-keep-the-international-space-station-going-until-2024-is-that-a-good-idea/?tid=ss_mail&utm_term=.1b-19572ebdc

Reynolds, Glenn H., Robert P. Merges. “The Role of Commercial Development in Preventing War in Outer Space.” 25 Jurimetrics Journal 130 (1984). Berkeley Law/Berkeley Law Scholarship Repository. 1-1-1984. https://scholarship.law/berkeley.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?.

Solon, Olivia. “Elon Musk: We must colonise Mars to preserve our species in a third world war.” The Guardian. 11 March 2018.  Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/mar/11/elon-musk-colonise-mars-third-world-war. Viewed 4 September 2018.

Sorensen, Jodi. “Space Law: The Outer Space Treaty Turns 50!” 30 January 2017. Spaceflight.http://spaceflight.com/space-law-the-outer-space-treaty-turns-50/. Viewed 19 February 2018.

United Nations. United Nations Treaties and Principles on Outer Space: Text of treaties and principles governing the activities of States in the exploration and use of outer space, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly. ST/SPACE/11. United Nations Publication. No. E.02.I.20. ISBN: 9211009006. http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/publications/STSPACE11E.pdf/. Viewed 19 February 2018.

 

Water, Water Everywhere . . . BUT Don’t Take a Drop!

Mars Rover saw it, smelled it, sensed it, verified it, but that was it. Water was found. In Space. On Mars. It looked definite. But… no sample was taken because of guidelines established in the 1967 Outer Space Treaty: if water is found in space, the treaty forbids taking a sample lest the explorer alters the chemical composition of the liquid found— and then scientists would not know what it really is.

Or worse. In taking a sample could inadvertently—perhaps inescapably, and certainly inadvisably—alter the entire water supply of the discovery. However, minerals apparently are not forbidden for collection, since Apollo missions brought back moon rocks. Asteroids are known to be sources of platinum.Valuable minerals may be mined by enterprises such as Planetary Resources, Deep Space Industries, and iSpace, among others. But so far, water remains off limits. It’s an interesting problem, and while we may find water on Mars, it remains to be solved how to test viability without endangering integrity.

NASA’s Mars program chief scientist Rich Zurek summarized:“Because liquid water appears to be present, we have to take extra precautions to prevent contamination by Earth life”. Whether or not to take samples from the moon and other celestial bodies may be a problem ripe for solution.

What is the foundation of water rights in space? Here is the relevant clause from the Outer SpaceTreaty.

Article IX. Outer Space Treaty

In the exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, States Parties to the Treaty shall be guided by the principle of cooperation and mutual assistance and shall conduct all their activities in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, with due regard to the corresponding interests of all other States Parties to the Treaty shall pursue studies of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, and conduct exploration of them so as to avoid their harmful contamination and also adverse changes in the environment of the Earth resulting from the introduction of extraterrestrial matter and, where necessary, shall adopt appropriate measures for this purpose. If a State Party to the Treaty has reason to believe that an activity or experiment planned by it or its nationals in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, would cause potentially harmful interference with activities of the other States Parties in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, it shall undertake appropriate international consultations before proceeding with any such activity or experiment. A State Party to the Treaty which has reason to believe that an activity or experiment planned by another State Party in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, would cause potentially harmful interference with activities in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, may request consultation concerning the activity or experiment.

Sources:

http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/publications/STSPACE11E.pdf

 NASA. “NASA Confirms Evidence That Liquid Water Flows on Today’s Mars.” 28 September 2015. Available from: https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-confirms-evidence-that-liqid-water-flows-on-today-s-mars.  Viewed 3 September 2018.

Ojha, Lujendra, et al 28 September 2015. Nature Geoscience

Pinkowski, Jen. “There’s Liquid Water on Mars.” 28 September 2015. NASA/JPL/University of Arizona.

Rathi, Akshat. 29 September 2015. “If there is liquid water on Mars, no one – not even NASA – can get anywhere near it.” Quartz. https://qz.com/512974/if-there-is-liquid-water-on-mars-no-one-not-even- nasa-can-get-anywhere-near-it/ Viewed 23 February 2018.

Zurek, Rich (RZ, NASA, JPL. Available from: https://www.reddit.com/r/ lAmA/comments/3mq1wl/were_nasa_mars_scientists_ask_us_anything_about/. Viewed 23 February 2018.

 

SOLUTIONS / INNOVATIONS

Problems, Solutions, Innovations. “Public problem solving,” image: wikimedia commons.

 

Successful Missions

Space exploration, which began with Sputnik (1957) and NASA (1967), continues to progress, with numerous other successful missions:

  • NASA’s Curiosity rover landed on Mars and began sending images and data about the planet back to
  • NASA’s Mars orbiter, MAVEN (Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution Mission) launched toward the Red Planet. MAVEN will study [is studying? when will it land/did it land?] the climate history of
  • China’s Chang’e 3 is an unmanned lunar exploration mission operated by the China National Space Administration, incorporating a robotic lander and China’s first lunar
  • The European Space Agency (ESA) succeeded in a historiclong shot: a ten-year voyage traversing 310 million miles (500 million kilometers). Along the way, the Rosetta mission dispatched a lander perfectly—on Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko.
  • Hayabusa 2 is an asteroid sample return mission operated by the Japanese space agency, JAXA. Its journey to an asteroid began in December 2014, with the mission to land on it and then return samples.
  • NASA’s Orion spacecraft, unmanned on its journey to Mars, traveling farther than any spacecraft designed for astronauts in more than 40 years.
  • Planetary Resources launched its Arkyd-3 mini satellites to test technologies for later telescopes looking for asteroids. It was successfully launched to the ISS riding on Dragon CRS-6, a SpaceX spacecraft from Elon Musk’s company.
  • The Rosetta spacecraft, which successfully put down a lander onacometin2014,completeditsmissionbymakingasoftlandingonthesame comet, sending back to the ESA a last series of pictures, and then expiring—all according to
  • SpaceX achieved the first re-flight of an orbital-class rocket to and from the International Space Station.

And More . . .

  • The XCOR Lynx: suborbital horizontal-takeoff, horizontal-landing, rocket-poweredspaceplanebyCalifornia-basedcompanyXCOR Aerospace, compete in the emerging suborbital spaceflight
  • Virgin Galactic: scheduled flights into sub-orbit.
  • NASA’sDawnspacecraft:firstspacecrafttovisit a dwarfplanet orbiting around Ceres.
  • IndianSpaceResearchOrganisation(ISRO):orbitertoward Venus.
  • NASA’s New Horizons:first spacecraft to fly by Pluto, returning the first close-up images of this distant world.
  • ESA’s Don Quixote:mission to make contact with an asteroid and study the change in its trajectory to determine if such a method could be used to deflect an asteroid away from earth
  • China’s Chang’e series: a lunar exploration incorporating an orbiter, a robotic lander, and a rover.
  • Luna-Glob: moon exploration program by Russian federal space agency, including fully robotic lunar base.
  • Chandrayaan series: with rover on Earth’s moon in tandem with an orbiter
  • NASA’sInSight:robotic lander to study the interior of Mars.

 

Water on the Moon?

Look at photos of Earth’s moon and compare them to the Earth itself. The former appears to be dry—perhaps an explanation for the term “moondust.” The latter is often called “the blue planet,” for it is clearly filled with water that encircles pieces of land.

 Apollo 11 landed on the moon, but there were no signs of water anywhere. Apollo 15 and Apollo 17 may have found possibilities of water, for both landed near volcanic areas. Samples taken included “beads” like those that form during volcanic explosions when magma bubbles up, crystallizes, and forms little beads that have water inside.

Scientists began looking elsewhere on the moon using satellite data, and they saw encouraging signs of water—or at least the same kinds of beads. There may be “widespread occurrence of water in pyroclastic materials sourced from the deep lunar interior,” concluded Ralph Milliken (Brown University, Rhode Island, US) and Shuai Li (University of Hawaii).

Further corroborating evidence came in 2009 when NASA purposely crashed a rocket into the moon’s south pole. The impact produced “signatures associated with water ice and hydroxyl” (Lang, 2017). The next year, analysis of moon rocks brought back to Earth showed more signs of water: apatite, a mineral linked with water, appeared locked in the rocks.

How much water might there be on the moon? While early lunar explorations led to the belief that the moon was anhydrous, many researchers believe there may be a lot of water there. According to geologist Francis McCubbin, “If you were to take all of the water in the moon’s interior, it would create an ocean that would cover the entire lunar surface at a depth of three feet.” McCubbin, of the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, and colleague Andrew Steele, of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at Carnegie, worked with scientists from Stony Brook University (New York, USA) and the Institute for Study of the Earth’s Interior (Okayama University, Japan). The team found that just like on Earth, where there is more water in the planet’s interior than in all the lakes, rivers, and oceans on the surface, so it may be on the moon. It’s not water like people drink in a glass. It’s hydroxyl, a structural form of water. But—it’s water.

If there is water on the moon, can it be mined? That’s the question explored by Shackleton Energy Company. If lunar water could be mined, split into its components of hydrogen and oxygen, then rocket fuel could be sold to flyers; think orbiting gas stations (Wall, 2011). That’s worth a lot if it could happen. It would be much more economical to launch from the moon to low earth orbit than from Earth—15 timescheaper.

Water on the Moon: Five Factors for Success

  1. Supply: Is there water? In good amounts? Apparently, billions of
  2. Demand: High costs of launching from Earth limits space activity. Ifin-space propellant were available, there could be a space transportation
  3. Wealth: What a return on investment for investors. Even better, it may begreen energy. Initial investment: $25 billion before positive
  4. Team:Spaceusedtobelongsolelytogovernments,buttodayprivateindustryit taking on more risks and doing it cheaper
  5. Policy/Law: If permits can be obtained to harvest and sell lunar resources, private enterprise could open a new

When considering hurdles to the five-factor plan outlined above, Stone mentioned “access and permits to launch nuclear power supplies to the moon directly . . . . Without nuclear power, lunar resources like water will not be extractable for many decades” (Wall, 2011). As for customers, Shackleton envisions government space agencies eager to buy propellant contracts. Private companies would follow, resulting in markets for satellite refueling and eventually space tourism.

Sources:

Ispace. “ispace Vision Movie: Expand our planet. Expand our future.” Video. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5cMEJTnPq-i/ Viewed 20 February 2018.

Lang, Hannah. “There’s Water Inside The Moon – More Than We Thought.” 24 July 2017. National Geographic. https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/07/water-moon-formed-volcanoes-glass-space- science/. Viewed 20 February 2018.

Lewis, Chloe. “Meet the Japanese company that intends to mine the moon.” 14 March 2017. Mining Global. http://www.miningglobal.com/mining-sites/meet-japanese-company-intends-mine-moon/.Viewed 20 February 2018.

Lunar X Prize. “The Race Is On: Google Lunar XPrize.” https://lunar.xprize.org/teams. Viewed 20 February 2018.

McCubbin, Francis et al. “Nominally hydrous magmatism on the Moon.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. PNAS 2010 June, 107 (25) 11223-11228. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1006677107. http://www.pnas.org/content/107/25/11223

Milliken, Ralph E. and Shuai Li. “Remote detection of widespread indigenous water in lunar pyroclastic deposits.” 24 July 2017. Nature Geoscience 10, 561-565 (2017). DOI: 10.1038/ngeo2993.

http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2993. Viewed 20 February 2018.

Moon Express. “Redefining Possible.” www.moonexpress.com

Nanalyze. “Space Mining Startups Hope to Mine the Moon.” https://www.nanalyze.com/2017/09/space-mining-startups-mine-moon/. Viewed 20 February 2018.

NASA. “Research Suggests Water Content of Moon’s Interior Underestimated.” 14 June 2010. https://www.nasa.go/topics/moonmars/features/lunar_water.html. Viewed 20 February 2018.

Schmitt, Harrison. Return to the Moon. (BOOK 2006)

Smithsonian. “Mining for Minerals in Space.” https://youtu.be/zHNjhOARJfo.

SpaceX.com. Viewed 3 September 2018.

Sunshine, Jessica et al. “Temporal and spatial variability of lunar hydration as observed by the Deep Impact spacecraft.” 23 October 2009. Science, Volume 326, Issue 5952, pp. 565—568. DOI: 10.1126/science.1179788. http://science.sciencemag.org/content/326/5952/565/. Viewed 20 February 2018.

Wall, Mike. “Mining the Moon’s Water: Q & A with Shackleton Energy’s Bill Stone.” 13 January 2011. Space.com. https://www.space.com/10619-mining-moon-water-bill-stone-110114.html. Viewed 20 February 2018

Walters, Greg. “This Company Plans to Mine the Moon – and It’s Not Alone.” 17 May 2017. Seeker.https://www.seeker.com/space/exploration/this-company-plans-to-mine-the-moon-and-its-not-alone/. Viewed 20 February 2018.

Easing Water Shortages on Earth?

Recent indications of the earlier existence of water on Earth’s moon and on Mars may give hope that construction and habitation in space might become possible. Essential for life and industry, water remains one of the limiters to activities in space.

The Gold Rush of the American West might be imitated in a lunar environment if a source of water were discovered on Earth’s moon, according to Glenn Reynolds: “One of the reasons we have not had a rush to the moon so far is that there has not been a compelling enough reason to go or reason to believe we could sustain any activity there without tremendous expense.” Reynolds, a University of Tennessee-Knoxville professor of law, along with Larry Taylor, professor of geology, worked on NASA programs, and learned that Lunar Prospector discovered significant deposits of water—frozen, but it could be utilized. Water would make habitation possible, not only supplying oxygen but also as a component of rocket fuel.

The moon or Mars may not be the only source of water in space. In 2015, Planetary Resources launched an experiment from the ISS to explore asteroid mining. The company hoped to utilize asteroid water for rocket fuel as well as to mine platinum-group metals from spacerocks.

Mars has fascinated humankind for as long as gazers first looked heavenward. After landing the Curiosityrover on Mars on August 5, 2012, NASA began receiving images and data about terrain. Among other interesting finds, a very large rock sitting atop a pile of smaller mudstones. Curiosity was soon reprogrammed to roll around the mound. After more than a year of roving, the large rock was by far the most interesting sign of something that NASA had hoped for: water. A 2015 report in Science Magazine detailed some of NASA’s findings: sediments may reveal a former site of rivers flowing around the planet. Similar to Earth, old streambeds appeared to fan out to create river deltas and perhaps even lakes. According to mission scientist Sanjeev Gupta of Imperial College London, the rock (nicknamed “Whale” by the team) may be an encouraging sign that three billion years ago there was water on Mars.

What Happens When You Get Thirsty in Space?

Options for quenching your thirst while in space pose a problem—not insurmountable or unsolvable, but limited. Because humans live on the water planet, a high percentage of our body is comprised of fluids. For example, 40,000 pounds of water from Earth would need to be transported to the International Space Station (ISS) to supply four crewmembers. Treating human waste (not chemical waste) with the right kind of filtration produces potable water. The ISS has used a version of this process since humans first began space excursions. Practices for reusing water have advanced considerably. Astronauts drink each other’s breath, meaning we all exhale and each sigh contains a tiny bit of water.

When we’re hot, we sweat, and that contains precious water. Air contains water: Russian scientists at the ISS designed a water processor that pulls humidity from the air and makes drinkable drops.

But what about water for other purposes? Rocket fuel is made of hydrogen, which requires water (H20). Since rockets are already being reused for space flights, wouldn’t it be useful if they could be refueled en route to a longer destination? Hydrogen has the capability to power rockets; hydrogen is also relatively light and quick to ignite.

According to NASA, “Hydrogen has the lowest molecular weight of any known substance and burns with extreme intensity (5,500 Fahrenheit). In combination with an oxidizer such as liquid oxygen, liquid hydrogen yields the highest specific impulse, or efficiency in relation to the amount of propellant consumed, of any known rocket propellant.” NASA’s chief of the Exploration Vehicle Project Office at the John H.Glenn Research Center stated that a human launch system, advanced beyond the original space shuttle, would likely use three stages of power:

StageOne        SolidPropellants

StageTwo       Liquid Hydrogen and Oxygen

Stage Three     LiquidPropellants

The three-stage structure of propellant architecture could support trips to both the Moon and to Mars (Smith 2006).

But suppose fuel didn’t have to be taken along? Imagine the drive from Chicago to Los Angeles (2,016 mi/3,244 km)—but you could only gas up in Chicago. How far could you get? Space has a similar problem. If a space vehicle has to carry all its required fuel, the added weight is a major burden. If it could refuel in space, the mission could be extended. What if space “gas stations” could be set up? Researchers point out that water is safe as a fuel source because it is an “energy carrier rather than a fuel” (Dunnill and Phillips, 2016).

If water might be found in space, and if using hydrogen and oxygen for satellite fuel continues to be effective, a power source in space may await—if water can be found.

Sources:

Dunnill, Charles W. and Robert Phillips. “Making space rocket fuels from water could drive a power revolution on Earth.” 27 September 2016. The Conversation. http://theconversation.com/making-space-rocket-fuel-from-water-could-drive-a-power-revolution-on-earth-65854/. Viewed 20 February 2018.

NASA. “Liquid Hydrogen-the Fuel of Choice for Space Exploration” https.www.nasa.gov/topics/technology/hydrogen/hydrogen_fuel_of_choice.html.Viewed 20 February 2018.

NASA. “Water on the Space Station: Rationing and recycling will be an essential part of life on the International Space Station…where the crew will get their water and how they will (re)use it.” 2 November 2000.

Smith, Bryan K. “What kind of fuel do rockets use and how does it give them enough power to get into space?” Scientific American. 13 February 2006. (Also has audio link). https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-kind-of-fuel-do-rock/#. Viewed 20 February 2018.

Water Power in Space

Cornell University came up with an idea for using water in space. Cislunar Explorers, a group of academic scholars and students, competed in NASA’s Space Technology Mission Directorate Centennial Challenge Program, with a total of $5 million at stake. Winners must design, build, and deliver satellites for operations near the moon and beyond. The team, which may have already aced the test by proving that water can fuel travel in space, points out that water is safe as a fuel source because it is an “energy carrier rather than a fuel” (Dunnill & Phillips, 2016). The Cornell Team, led by Mason Peck, designed a system in which solar energy—readily available in space— would be used to send water into space to be available in a satellite. Peck summarized: “If this water-based propulsion technique is successful, we hope it will kick-start the use of in-situ resource for refueling spacecraft for commercial purposes or science.” Project manager Kyle Doyle expanded the view: “By demonstrating that water is a viable propellant, having a future lander touch down on one of the icy moons in the solar system, you can gather up the ice, refuel your spacecraft and send that spacecraft to further places (Harbaugh, NASA, 7 February 2018). Thus, if water could be found in space, and if using hydrogen and oxygen for satellite fuel continues to be effective, power in space could be easily found.

Meanwhile, there’s plenty of water back on Earth. So while Cornell may be looking to the sky, Wales is looking at options here on Earth. It is clear that Earth needs to move away from fossil fuel energy, and solar and wind are developing. But while they are efficient at generating energy, storing it is not so easy. At times of lower power use but high generation and production, it’s hard to keep the energy in batteries or other storage ideas. But Riversimple posited the idea that one could use that extra electricity to split water into its two components of oxygen and hydrogen. It’s easy to store. It’s easy to transport. And it can be burned for fuel at any time. Fuel cell cars are an example. Another is a hydrogen gas burner. Riversimple worked with Toyota and Volkswagen, testing hydrogen fuel-cell cars.

Sources:

Dunnill, Charles W. and Robert Phillips. “Making space rocket fuels from water could drive a power revolution on Earth.” 27 September 2016. The Conversation. http://theconversation.com/making-space-rocket-fuel-from-water-could-drive-a-power-revolution-on-earth-65854/. Viewed 20 February 2018.

Fleischman, Tom. “Cornell’s quest: Make the first CubeSat to orbit the moon.” 15 September 2016. Cornell Chronicle. http://news.cornell.edu/stories/2016/09/cornells-quest-make-first-cubesat-orbit-moon/. Viewed 20 February 2019.

Harbaugh, Jennifer, editor. NASA. “Cube Quest Challenge Team Spotlight: Cislunar Explorers.“ 22 May 2017. Updated 7 February 2018. https://www.nasa.gov/directorate/spacetech/centennial_challenges/ cubequest/cislunar-explorers/. Viewed 20 February 2018.

Lang, Hannah. “There’s Water Inside The Moon – More Than We Thought.” 24 July 2017. National Geographic. https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/07/water-moon-formed-volcanoes-glass- space-science/. Viewed 20 February 2018.

Space Tourism and Travel

Space will undoubtedly attract travel and tourism—for those who can afford hefty fees for passage. Richard Branson bills Virgin Galactic as “the world’s first commercial spaceline” (i.e., like an airline but in space). Branson commented: “For the first time, we were able to prove the key components of the system, fully integrated and in flight. Today’s supersonic success opens the way for a rapid expansion of the spaceship’s powered flight envelope, with a very realistic goal of full space flight by the year’s end.”

In early 2014, a CNN reporter peeked inside Branson’s SpaceShipTwo. According to that report, it is bigger inside than one might think. But the major reveal was the windows: there is a side and a ceiling window for every passenger. Once flight weightlessness is achieved, passengers will be allowed out of their seats to float around the cabin for six (much-photographed) minutes. Then the ship returns back to Earth, where the passengers can then call themselves “passenger astronauts.”

The waiting list for tourist spots on Virgin’s space endeavor is long; more than 500 people to date have made a £190,0000 (US$250,000) down payment for a seat on a flight, and some seats will cost even more. In 2013, at a charity auction in France, someone paid US$1.5 million to reserve the seat next to one booked by actor Leonardo DiCaprio. Only six passengers at a time will fit into each spacecraft flight, along with two pilots. Of course, Branson and his family will be among the first, perhaps later joined by other luminaries eagerly awaiting the opportunity to undertake such an adventure. Branson is also looking ahead to developing launch sites for vehicles that can carry passengers from London to Singapore in one hour.

Branson is not the only space adventurer. XCOR Aerospace, operating in the Mojave Desert, had the goal of a smaller vehicle designed for one passenger and one pilot. Another is Mojave Aerospace Ventures, a team funded by Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen and led by aerospace pioneer and prototype designer, Burt Rutan. Rutan’s company, Scaled Composites, developed a three-seat spaceplane called SpaceShipOne, which in 2004 won a contest to became the first private vehicle to carry a human being into space.

Another competitor is Elon Musk’s SpaceX. The company was founded in 2002 to revolutionize space technology, with one potential goal of enabling people to live on other planets. SpaceX (Space Exploration Technologies) has won U.S. government contracts to provide transport to the International Space Station.

Blue Origin, founded by Jeff Bezos of Amazon, began several projects involving space travel: Mission 9 for safe escape in any phase of flight, and new Shepard crew capsule. New Shepard flew on 29 April 2018 from Blue Origin’s west Texas launch site.

 Living in Space

 National Geographic magazine’s Human GENOgraphic Project, which began in 2005, invited every person on Earth to provide a DNA sample, which would enable project scientists to trace the beginnings and movements of world population. Early project results confirm that humankind tends to move ceaselessly from place to place. It is likely, therefore, that exploration of space will continue; also, that discoveries of water and oxygen on certain planets might result in space colonization. Gerard O’Neill, Princeton University professor and author of The High Frontier (1976), was one of the first to suggest space habitation:

Science, engineering and technology will continue to open up possibilities. If asteroids can be mined for water and minerals, can various kinds of building— both for habitation and scientific laboratories for experimentation in areas still unguessed—be facilitated? Of course, the answer must be affirmative. But what kinds of issues will arise? And how can we be prepared to address and answer the questions that space will open up to a new generation? 

Space tourism would likely expand to longer visits and eventually habitation of other planetary locations. The population of Earth is expanding, and as that continues, Earth may suffer scarcity of fundamental resources: water, arable and agricultural land, fossil fuels, and places to live.

Interplanetary Year

Frank Davidson, co-founder of Camp William James of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), often talked about “Lunar U.” In 2016, the Student Spaceflight Experiments Program (SSEP), a cooperative program of the National Center for Earth and Space Science Education (NCESSE) and the Arthur C. Clarke Institute for Space Education, announced Mission 11 to the ISS. Begun in 2010 by the NCESSSE and NanoRacks, LLC, the SSEP gives participating American students opportunities to design microgravity experiments for low-earth orbit. In 2012, through the Clark Institute, the effort expanded to an international membership.

SSEP invited students to compete in the design and production of experiments; the prize? A trip to the ISS—for his/her project. More than 61,000 students from 780 schools worked on the microgravity experiment. From the 13,617 experiment proposals, 113 flew and 61 more were slated. The program included a talking stick: “Student Voices of Mission Control” invited each participating community to set up a Twitter account where students offer real-time tracking of the flight containing their experiment: pre-flight preparation. launch, flight operations, and return to Earth.

Sources:

Bass, M. The Politics and Civics of National Service: Lessons from the Civilian Conservation Corps, Vista, and AmeriCorps. Brookings Institution Press, 2013. ISBN: 9780815723806.

Cole, O., Jr. The African-American Experience in the Civilian Conservation Corps.1999. ISBN: 0813016606.

Wilson, J. “Community, Civility, and Citizenship: Theatre and Indoctrination in the Civilian Conservation Corps of the 1930s.” Theatre History Studies  23, 2003, 77-92.

 

UNISPACE

Space exploration and industrialization progressed faster than many would have guessed. Economic interests expanded, as did technological capability. Ownership issues are arising. It might be noted that adversarial stances may develop, both commercially and internationally. Is there a guiding principle that might help humanity proceed in the right direction?

UNISPACE is not a new idea. The first United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space celebrated its golden anniversary in 2018. Conferences have been relatively few: 1968, Vienna, marked UNISPACE 1. Others took place in the same location in 1982 and 1999.

UNISPACE I brought together 78 member states, 9 specialized UN agencies, and 4 other international organizations that issued the initial Report of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (document A/7285. Emphasis was on space for satellite communication, weather observation, and development of a legal framework for liability for damage caused by launching of objects into outer space.

UNISPACE II established regional centers for space science and technology education.

UNISPACE III concerned protection of the space environment, global environment and natural resources.

Focus Areas

A Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space continued to meet, and developed a plan of work to establish thematic priorities for the golden event. Here are the focus areas:

  • Global partnership in space exploration and innovation
  • Legal regime of outer space and global space governance
  • Enhanced information exchange on space objects and events
  • International framework for space weather services
  • Strengthened space cooperation for global health
  • International cooperation towards low-emission and resilient societies
  • Capacity-building for the twenty-first century.

Sources:

www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/unispaceplus50/background.html. Viewed 22 September 2018.

www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/1982/aconf/aconf_10110_0_html/A

Davidson, Roger. “Unispace: for choir, organ, piano, and percussion.” 1982, inspired by UNISPACE II. (rogerdavidsonmusic.net).

UNISPACE I, facsimile of the print version: www.unoosa.org/pdf/gadocs/A_7285E.pdf.

UNISPACE III report:  www.unoosa.org/pdf/reports/unispace/viennadecIE.pdf

 

Journey to Mars

Mars has long been the target of serious space explorations, both real and aspiring. But sending humans to the Red Planet remains a challenge. Earth’s moon can be reached relatively easily—three days, maybe four. Mars is considerably farther: 140 million miles (54 million km) and requiring six months to get there. How could such a voyage be accomplished?

In 2016, Elon Musk announced a bold plan to begin colonizing Mars. Musk estimated it would cost $10 billion to develop the rocket that would ferry passengers, equipment, and supplies. He said the first passengers to Mars could take off as soon as 2024 if the plans proceed without a hitch. For now, SpaceX is financing development costs, but eventually the company would look to some kind of public-private partnership.

Each of the SpaceX vehicles would take 100 passengers on the journey to Mars, with trips planned every 26 months, when Earth and Mars pass close to each other. Tickets per person might cost $500,000 at first, and drop to about one-third of that later on, Musk said. Establishing a self-sustaining Mars civilization of a million people would take 10,000 flights, with many more to ferry equipment and supplies.

NASA has been tasked with landing humans on Mars by the 2030s. The nonprofit Mars One Foundation claims it is preparing to blast off hardware for human habitation of the Red Planet by 2024.

 

Space Elevator Raises Hope

When space exploration began with Sputnik (1957) and advanced with the Apollo lunar landing(1969),rockets were the customary means for reaching orbit. The booster rockets and the subsequently disposable launch vehicles are expensive, environmentally questionable, and financially wasteful (incredibly, the propellants accounted for only 0.4% of the cost of one rocket). For all the efforts undertaken by Russia and the United States, it may be Canada that wins the space race—or at least zooms ahead. Brendan Quine and Caroline Roberts, both of Thoth Technologies, may bring to fulfillment an idea first suggested in 1895 by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, who was himself inspired by the EiffelTower.

Thoth’s vision for future launches is based on an elevator concept that would raise the spacecraft 12.4 miles to a platform from where the launch would actually take place. Such a liftoff would reduce the need for massive amounts of fuel and cut the costs of propelling a vehicle into space orbit. A successful space elevator embodies the notion of reusability, and could be matched with reusable technologies already being used by SpaceX. Roberts commented: “Space elevator towers are set to revolutionise the way we access space, generate renewable wind energy, and communicate over a wide footprint. With a ticket price around US$2000 to ascent the full elevator, we aim to make space affordable. The tourist potential is immense.”

Source:

“Thothx Releases Space Elevator Animation.” 22 August 2016. Available from: http:/thothx.com/news-2/

Astrobotic and DHL

As one of the world’s big package delivery services, DHL might someday mean Delivery: Home to Lunar. Astrobotic, a delivery service designed to convey payloads to the moon signed an agerement with DHL.  Delivery options included a “Moon Box” in which you may place a family photo and mementos, say a ring, a favorite piece of jewelry, or a pin. The consumer selects a box size, orders a kit, and your very own moon box will be placed in the moon capsule. When it is loaded, you will receive a high-resolution photo of your keepsake on its way to the moon. When it lands, you’ll get another photo. Here’s a list of things you can’t send:

  • Weapons or hazardous materials, liquids, gels, or aerosols (defined by US Dept. of Transportation)
  • Biological material in any state (but you can send hair and/or teeth)
  • Perishable objects
  • Radioactive objects
  • Objects with stored energy

Sending and leaving packages on the moon required a new kind of shipping contract, however, with new Terms and Condition. Some legal rights, unthinkable 100 years ago, may be established and other waived. Payment must be completed in one invoice, and paid in advance. The deal is non-refundable.

Source:

Astrobotic. “MoonBox™ Terms and Conditions” https://www.astrobotic.com/moon-box/terms/. Viewed 19 February 2018.

Sex in a Space City

Sending humans into space to live may have been tested with the ISS, but no babies have yet been born there. Of course, that is not the goal for the scientists living together on ISS. But when longer, or even permanent, habitation might be attempted, continuation of species will become a factor. Sex in space may be a challenge. “It is still unknown, if you want kids and you want reproduction, what gravity has to do with that,” stated Dan Buckland, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, during the 100-Year Starship Symposium. The conference, organized by DARPA, explored the various requirements for sending a long-term mission to a planet or star.

Gravity is an Earth phenomenon, necessary for maintaining the health of our bodies including bone density, muscle development and maintenance, even blood volume. It is known that residence on the ISS, an environment characterized by weightlessness, has a distinct and measurable detrimental effect on those who take on such tours of duty.

What effect would zero gravity have on a developing baby? So far, the consequences seem troubling. On Earth, babies help with their own delivery because of their weight. But in the weightless environment of space, such an arrival would require something more. Without becoming too detailed, scientists ponder whether even conceiving children might be a different experience in zero gravity.

Source:

NBCNews.com.  “Sex will pose a huge challenge for interstellar travel.” 10/1/2011. Available from: http://www.nbcnews.com/id/44744104/ns/ technology_and_science-space/t/sex-will-pose-huge-challenge-interstellar-travel/#.W42EdLgna70

Space-Based Communication

Space gave the world access to the Internet. From 1961 when COMSAT was authorized, satellites have used space to provide communication capability to Earth. In 2013, Google began launching balloons into near-space to test possible ways to beam lower-bandwidth signals to areas of the world far removed from Internet access. Another benefit of space is the availability of communications options when land-based routers are destroyed or disabled by natural disasters.

Loon LLC, an Alphabet Inc. subsidiary, proposed the goal of internet connectivity in rural and remote areas.Loon’s chief technologist, Richard DeVaul, commented: “The idea behind Loon was that it might be easier to tie the world together by using what it has in common—the skies—rather than the process of laying fiber and trying to put up cell phone infrastructure.” Space Data of Arizona helped the U.S. Air Force extend communications, while World Surveillance Group of Florida did the same for the Army.

International Space Station

The International Space Station (ISS) is currently the largest artificial body in orbit around Earth. It is 239 feet (72.8 meters) long, and 356 feet (108.5 meters) wide, and with a speed of 17,100 mph (27,600 kmph). The ISS is also a busy place, over the years welcoming people from 17 countries: astronauts, cosmonauts, scientists, and an occasional paying spacetourist.

In its original 1975 vision—a joint space project utilizing space modules from the United States and Soviet Union that would meet in space, dock together into one unit, and thereafter conduct scientific research—the ISS advanced the idea of a permanent home in space for humankind. Russia offered its satellite Mir to serve as the physical abode; NASA provided transport by building space shuttles. Eventually, the shuttle business was handed over to private providers.

While many nations and private enterprises have taken part in the ISS, the founding parents still occupy its two main wings. The Russian Orbital Segment (ROS) lies parallel and adjoining the United States Orbital Segment (USOS). Both partners have endowedtheirsupportwithfundingto2024. In2014,discussionsbeganaboutbuilding a replacement for theISS.

Not just unique in its historic placement near Earth, the ISS has its own time zone: Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which is more or less the same as Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). Note of interest: The idea of standardized time zones came as a suggestion from Sandford Fleming, a surveyor on the Canadian Pacific Railway. Owing to communications failures during the construction of the U.S. Transcontinental Railroad, Fleming realized a better system was required. Building on the experience of the Canadian Pacific Railway and the U.S. Transcontinental Railroad, the entire world became engaged in establishing a coordinated system for keeping time. In 1884, the International Prime Meridian Conference was convened in Washington, DC. The Swedish delegation conveyed the formal proposal, which was agreed and recorded as a Final Act. Representatives from 25 countries examined the proposal, and the Final Act was passed, inaugurating the first worldwide system of time zones.

 

Asteroid Mining

The moon may have water, precious metals, helium-3 gas. But it may be slow to obtain permits for mining, even for nations and especially for private companies. Asteroids, however, may be different. The market is promising: a single asteroid, even one as small as a football field, could be worth as much as $50 billion, if a Goldman Sachs study is right (CBInsights, 2017). Platinum is not the only lure of asteroids.

Another advantage of asteroids? Environmental: continuously mining Earth for metal, materials, and water deposits may eventually wreck planet Earth. We will always need these commodities. Why not find them in space and stop digging up our planet?

Floating machines could be another benefit. Gravity pulls down on everything on Earth, meaning heavy—very heavy—equipment is needed for mining or even manufacturing. But asteroids could prove to be better worksites.

Asteroids are not specifically mentioned in the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, although states and countries are forbidden to lay claim to “celestial bodies.” In those days, only states and countries could afford such exploration and ensuing claims. In the 1960s, there were no private companies operating in space. Today’s investors are well aware of the potential rewards. Not only would asteroid mining advance space exploration, it would also be highly profitable if successful.

Sources:

Anderson, Eric C. Available from: https://en.m.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_C._Anderson. Accessed 2 May 2018.

Calandrelli, Emily. “Deep Space Industries partners with Luxembourg to test asteroid mining technologies.” 5 May 2016. Tech Crunch. https://techcrunch.com/2016/05/05/deep-space-industries- partners-with-luxembourg-to-test-asteroid-mining-technologies/. Viewed 20 February 2018.

CBInsights. “Here’s Why Mining Platinum From Asteroids Could be a Billion-Dollar Opportunity: A single asteroid could contain as much as $50B worth of platinum. Space mining could roil community markets back on earth and startups are taking the first steps to making it happen.” 31 August 2017. https://www.cbinsights.com/research/asteroid-mining-goldman-sachs-platinum/?utm_source=CB+Insights+Newsletter&utm_campaign=5fc4e7180f=ThursNL-8-31- 2017&utm_term=0_9dc05139/. Viewed 20 February 2018.

Deep Space Industries. http://deepspaceindustries.com/. Viewed 20 February 2018.

London Vision Clinic. “How many people have had LASIK surgery?” https://www.londonvisionclinic.com/how-many-people-have-had-lasik-surgery/.  Available from:

https://www.planetaryresources.com/2016/11/planetary-resources-and-the-government-of- luxembourg-announce-e25-million-investment-and-cooperative-agreement/. Viewed 4 September 2018.

Minter, Adam. “Asteroid mining finds an unlikely champion.” 29 July 2017. The Japan Times.https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2017/07/29/commentary/world-commentary/asteroid-mining-finds-unlikely-champion/#.Ws4UqygylDI.

Moon, Mariella. “Luxembourg’s asteroid mining law takes effect August 1: It’s the first of its kind in Europe.” 30 July 2017. Bloomberg. Engadget. https://www.engadget.com/2017/07/30/luxembourg-asteroid-mining-law-august-1/.

Planetary Resources, Inc. https://www.planetaryresources.com/. Viewed 20 February 2018.

Planetary Resources. “Planetary Resources and The Government of Luxembourg Announce Euro 25 Million Investment and Cooperative Agreement: First commercial asteroid prospecting mission to launch by 2020.” Redmond, Washington, 3 November 2016.

Statista. “Most valuable asteroids in the asteroid belt based on mineral land element content (in quintillion U.S. dollars)” 2018. https://www.statista.com/statistics/656143/mineral-and-element-value-of-selected-asteroids/#0/ Viewed 10 October 2018.

Moon Rock Souvenirs

It’s a common occurrence: when returning from a trip, one often brings home a souvenir. That’s what happened even to the rarest of travelers—those who set foot on Earth’s moon. Apollo astronauts brought home a few moon rocks, and they now sit in encased splendor in the U.S.’s greatest repository, the Smithsonian Institution. But they also may be in a slightly gray area of legality. While the U.S. Customs Services lists any number of items disallowed for import into the U.S., including plants and soil, so far there is no listing for moon rocks or asteroid minerals.

The Outer Space Treaty states firmly that no celestial body can be owned or claimed as a sovereign territory by any visitor. No country can own Mars or Earth’s moon. But what about stuff you find on Mars or the moon? Can you own what you can carry? Is it similar to fishing: you can own the fish you catch, and have a right to cook it on a beach barbeque later, but you cannot own the water from which it came.

Treaty of Tordesillas

Perhaps the law can be exemplified by the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) in which Portugal and Spain divided up spoils brought home by voyagers to the New World. In 1492, Columbus made certain discoveries, and word reached the Spanish monarchy about those discoveries and potential treasures. Columbus signed a treaty with King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella giving Columbus rights to “pearls, gold, silver, spices, and other merchandise” at a ratio of 10% to Columbus, after covering expenses of obtaining the treasures:

All and whatever merchandise, whether it be pearls, precious stones, gold, silver, spices, and other things whatsoever, and merchandise of whatever kind, name, and manner it may be, which may be bought, bartered, discovered, acquired, or obtained within the limits of the said Admiralty, your Highnesses grant henceforth to the said Don Christopher, and will that he may have and take for himself, the tenth part of all of them, deducting the expenses which may be incurred therein. – Agreement of 17 April 1492, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella with Christopher Columbus.

Furthermore, Spain, Portugal, and Pope Alexander VI made a deal: a line of demarcation would run from North Pole to South Pole, through the Atlantic Ocean, set about 300 miles west of Cape Verde. Setting the line thus, it was agreed that Spain had sovereign rights to all lands “discovered and undiscovered” west of the line. Portugal got the other half, east of the line. In a gesture to the Pope, any discovered lands that were already ruled by a Christian were not up for territorial claim, but the rest were up for any nation to claim. But treaty-making is never easy, and the awardees argued, particularly Portugal, that the line did not allow them access to Africa. So, on 7 June 1493, the parties met in Tordesillas, Spain, and agreed on the earlier west/east split, but adjusted the “line” to 1,885 miles west of Cape Verde. As a result, to this day and because of this treaty, people in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, speak Portuguese.

Luxembourg at the Forefront

Both the Tordesillas Treaty and Columbus’ contract may have bearing on the evolution of the Outer Space Treaty and more recent laws passed by the United States (in 2015) and by the tiny country of Luxembourg (in 2017) regarding space resources. The United States may have good reasons for passing such a law, since Americans took the first moon rocks, thereby advancing space exploration and acquisition. But why would Luxembourg pass such laws? Some say the country is thinking of the future.

Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of the Economy, Etienne Schneider, commented: “Luxembourg has always been a country that has tried to reinvent its own future. We want to be the frontrunner for this economy.”

Space is quite an economy, with multiple facets. Space flight is one part, piquing the interest of wealthy investors like Bezos, Branson, Greason, and Musk to join others who are looking far beyond Earth’s finite borders. In investment parlance, such investors are called ultra high net worth i (UHNW) individuals. With a combined wealth in the billions of dollars, 13 such people are invested in high-space stakes, according to Knight Frank Wealth Report (Sunyer, 2014). Some, like Branson, think space flight is still a narrow tourism market, but it could lead to ultrafast Earth travel, say, San Francisco to Singapore in two hours.

But space is more than travel. When Columbus opened a sea route (questionably for some historians), migrants soon followed, quickly dubbing one coastal area of the U.S. as “New England.” After space travel comes settlement—and Mars is on the destination list. China is working on plans for space travel. Bas Lansdorp, CEO of Mars One, solicited volunteers for a one-way trip on Mars One, to be televised (Sunyer 2014). Mars One would drop off 24 people, providing them with inflatable houses, hydroponic farming, computers, and TVs. More than 200,000 people have applied to date.

Lansdorp and Musk may agree that the Outer Space Treaty would seem to disallow settlements in the name of any one particular country. Some argue against that prohibition, perhaps hoping for a real estate market that may be a first in history. Robert Bigelow, owner of Bigelow Aerospace as well as many hotels, proposed the establishment of private property rights on the moon (Sunyer, 2014).

But if you cannot own the land, there may not be any prohibition against mining it. Planetary Resources accepted a €25 million grant from the Société Nationale de Credit et d’Investissement to start mining in partnership with Luxembourg. Just weeks later, Luxembourg inked a deal with Deep Space Industries in a joint partnership for spacecraft development. Another signed agreement linked the country with iSpace, with Luxembourg’s Schneider telling the government that some seed money would be needed—say €200 million for starters. Since then, 60 space start-ups have come to Luxembourg seeking some form of partnership (Ram, 2017).

Both Luxembourg and the United States may have followed precedents found in 19th century mining laws, with many mining historians finding there was a distinct difference between ownership of a mine and ownership of the surface (deMan, 2017). Luxembourg cited as precedent the laws for fishing: Francois Laurent, in 1878, referred to Roman law res nullius in Roman canon referred to marine life that had “no ruler” and therefore was freely available to the taker. More recently, countries have set coastal limits and defined fishing grounds. But the deep sea and seabed still belong to Earth and all its inhabitants. So it is not surprising that Luxembourg reasoned thus: if it could get a space ship up to an asteroid or other celestial body, its explorers could dig in the surface and bring home souvenirs. For now, at the time of this writing, the Outer Space Treaty stands as precedent law.

Sources:

DeMan, Philip. “Luxembourg Law on Space Resources Rests on Contentious Relationship with International Framework.” Working Paper No. 189 – July 2017. Leuven Centre for Global Governance Studies. https://ghum.kuleuven.be/ggs/publications/working_papers/2017/189deman/. Viewed 21 February 2018.

Government of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, Space Resources LU. “Exploring New Frontiers: Draft Law on the exploration and use of space resources.” 1 August 2017. http://www.spaceresources.public.lu/content/dam/spaceresources/news/Translation%20Of%20The% 20Draft%20Law.pdf. Viewed 21 February 2018.

Kaminska, Izabella. “The dark side of space: how capitalism poses a threat beyond Earth.” 14 March 2014. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/02aac296-a920-11e3-bf0c-00144feab7de/Visited 21 February 2018.

Laurent, François. Principes de droit civil français. Volume 6, 3rd edition, 1978.

Le Gouvernement du Grand-Duché de Luxembourg. Project de loi sur l’exploration de l’utilisation des ressources de l’espace. http://www.gouvernement.lu/6481986/Projet-de-loi-espace. Viewed 21 February 2018.

Ram, Allya. “US and Luxembourg frame laws for new space race: National statutes fill in some of the blanks of UN treaty written for cold war era.” 19 October 2017. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/af15f0e4-707a-11e7-93ff-99f383b09ff9. Visited 21 February 2018.

Sunyer, John. “The new market space: Billionaire investors look beyond Earth.” 28 February 2014. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/a441d9bc-9d65-11e3-a599-00144feab7de. Viewed 21 February 2018.

Thatcher, J.B. “King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, Agreements with Columbus of April 17 and April 30, 1492.” In: Christopher Columbus: His Life and Work. 3 Volumes. New York and London: Putnam (1903), vol. 2: 442-251. http://college.cengage.com/history/primary_sources/world/agree_columbus.htm. Viewed 21 February 2018.

United States, Congress. U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act. Public Law No: 114-90 (25 November 2015), 114th Congress. Text: H.R. 2262 – 114th Congress (2015-2016). https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/2262/text. Viewed 21 February 2018.

Money to be Made

There is so much money to be made in space that it is almost beyond our ability to measure. One means of calculation is to compare it to Earth valuations.

The industry of raw metals mined on Earth accounts for approximately $600 billion per year. That might sound like a lot, but actually Earth’s raw metals are hard to obtain and not all that plentiful. Earth’s surface is a crusty texture that is not abundant with metals.

Some asteroids, however, are composed almost totally of metal. Some of these metallic asteroids are called X-type. One, fairly near Earth, is thought to have more platinum than has ever been mined on Earth throughout human history.

How many possibilities are there? The asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter contains as many as one million asteroids. Some measure 60 miles (100 km) in diameter. If those asteroids could be mined, NASA estimates it would be worth more than $700 quintillion. Or, putting it personally, that could give each person on Earth $100 billion (Desjardins 2016).

Sources:

Desjardins, Jeff. “There’s Big Money to Be Made in Asteroid Mining.” 2 November 2016. Visual Capitalist. http://www.visualcapitalist.com/theres-big-money-made-asteroid-mininig/. Viewed 21 February 2018.

“Leading asteroids based on mineral and element value.”

https://www.statista.com/statistics/656143/mineral-and-element-value-of-selected-asteroids/.Viewed 4 September 2018.

 

CASE STUDY:  SPACE

COMSAT

Satellites in Space

1 August 1962. Although Jules Verne and Arthur C. Clarke planted in people’s minds the possibility of space communications, it was John R. Pierce, a scientist at AT&T’s Bell Labs, who became known as the inventor of satellite communication. Pierce published an article in 1955 that discussed a plan by David J. Whalen of NASA for a “communications ‘mirror’ in space, a medium-orbit repeater, and a 14-hour-orbit repeater.” Pierce recognized immediately that the capability of such a mirror/repeater system could carry a thousand telephone calls simultaneously, whereas the first transatlantic cable (and the only idea with potential at the time) carried only 36. Pierce saw the opportunity, and the timing wasright.

Plans for the practical use of Earth satellites took shape quickly after Sputnik was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957. Three years later the U.S. Congress authorized (in legislation reproduced in Appendix C) the Communications Satellite Act of 1962, which mandated the formation of a private corporation to establish and manage a U.S. commercial communications-satellite system as part of a global system including other countries.

COMSAT Corporation registered as an incorporated publicly traded business in 1963, with shares sold in equal proportion to public and private communications companies. COMSAT’s purview extended to the development of satellite technology and to operation of ground stations. The timeline began to move quickly.

 

1964:

COMSAT, along with agencies from more than a dozen other nations, formed a worldwide commercial network known as the International Telecommunications

Satellite Consortium, or INTELSAT, which today has over 140 member countries and signatories.

1969: INTELSAT created a communications system that covered the entire globe (except for the polar regions). INTELSAT satellites, positioned in high synchronous, or stationary, orbit over the Indian Ocean worked together with similar INTELSAT satellites over the Atlantic and Pacific. The moment of connection proved writer Arthur C. Clarke prescient in his 1945 proposal that three satellites, spaced equal distances apart in high synchronous orbits, could provide continuous line-of-sight transmission of radio and television signals to most of Earth’s surface.
1979:

COMSAT expanded to represent the United States in International Maritime Satellite (INMARSAT), which later expanded to cover not only maritime but also land,

mobile, and aeronautical communications. The entity was renamed to the International Mobile Satellite Organization.

1997:

Pierce applied Whalen’s plan for 1,000 simultaneous telephone calls. It was a technological miracle. Pierce would have been amazed when, in 1997, satellites in the INTELSAT 8 series carried 22,500 two-way telephone calls—and three color

television broadcasts at the same time.

2000:

Lockheed Martin purchased COMSAT. Congress agreed to the purchase, and to rescind COMSAT’s exclusive right to access the INTELSAT network. The sale also called for the privatization of INTELSAT, with its membership of 145 countries. It

now has more members than the United Nations.

 

Satellites and the Internet

As a public/private technology, COMSAT may suggest ways that the Internet might reach every part of the world, bridging what is sometimes called the digital divide. Included in COMSAT’s charter: “Care and attention will be directed toward providing such services to economically less-developed countries.”

Satellites and Space Solar Power

Satellites in a network make possible the realization of Peter Glaser’s vision for solar power from space via satellite. Glaser, holder of U.S. patent number US3781647A, notes that it may take 75 years to transition to a new energy technology, so it is never too early to begin, especially now that certain fuels in use today for generating electricity are increasingly being questioned. COMSAT’s agreement included an initial capitalization of $200 million, launched by the United States Congress as a private corporation, subject to government regulation. Why? “It is the policy of the United States to establish, in conjunction and in cooperation with the other countries, as expeditiously as practicable, a commercial communications network, which will be responsive to public needs of the United States and other countries and which will contribute to world peace and understanding.”

Sources:

https://archive.org/details/sps91powerfromsp00unse

Brooke-Lusk, Kathleen E. and George H. Litwin, “Organizing and managing satellite solar power” Space Policy 16 (2000), pp. 145-156.

Clarke, Arthur C. The Exploration of Space. New York: Harper: 1951. Clarke, Arthur C. “Extra-Terrestrial Relays,” Wireless World (1945).

Garrels, Anne. Naked in Baghdad: The Iraq War as seen by NPR’s Correspondent Anne Garrals. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2003. ISBN: 0374529035. (This book was written for National Public Radio using a satellite phone in a suitcase.)

Glaser, Peter E., Frank P. Davidson, and Katinka Csigi.Solar Power Satellites: A Space Energy System for Earth. Chicester, UK: John Wiley & Sons/Praxis Publishing, 1998.

Labrador, Virgil S. and Peter I. Galace, Heavens Fill With Commerce: A Brief History of the Communications Satellite Industry.” SatNews Publishers, 2005. ISBN: 0936361328.

Mueller, Milton. Universal Service: Competition, Interconnection, and Monopoly in the Making of the American Telephone System. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1997.

Pierce, John Robinson. The Beginnings of Satellite Communications. History of Technology Monograph. San Francisco Press, 1968.

Sellers, Wallace O. “Financing ‘Orbital Power & Light, Inc.’”. In: Glaser, Peter E. et al., Solar Power Satellites: A Space Energy System for Earth. Chicester, UK: John Wiley & Sons/Praxis Publishing, 1998.

Verne, Jules. De la terra à la lune or From the earth to the moon. 1965. Various subsequent editions in many languages.

Whalen, David J. The Origins of Satellite Communications, 1945-1965. Washington: Smithsonian Institute Press, 2002.

Whalen, David J. “Communications Satellites: Making the Global Village Possible.” Includes a selective Satellite Chronology from 1945 to 1988. See:

<http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/history/satcomhistory.html>. (Accessed 12/19/04)

 

CASE STUDY: SPACE

Planetary Resources Inc.:

Property Rights, and the Regulation of the Space Economy

by Matthew Weinzierl and Angela Acocella

Abstract

Planetary Resources, Inc. (PRI) had a bold—some said crazy—vision: to mine asteroids. One might have assumed that developing the right technology would be the greatest challenge facing PRI. But even if the fledgling company could develop and deploy the sophisticated imaging, prospecting, and communication capabilities required for mining asteroids, two additional obstacles meant success was not guaranteed. First, uncertainty remained over whether, and how, property rights to resources mined in space would be enforced. PRI’s leadership’s challenge was to anticipate, and perhaps shape, how this uncertainty would be resolved. Making that balancing act more difficult was a second factor: a complex and underfunded U.S. regulatory infrastructure that threatened to slow PRI’s progress and escalate costs.

Keywords: Property; Rights; Governing Rules, Regulations, and Reforms; Aerospace Industry; Mining Industry

Note to the Reader: Case studies, like systems models, may reveal different, and complementary, positions of partners and decision makers in macro-engineering achievements. In the case study of “Planetary Resources,” readers may find ways to explore priorities and decisions in the space economy. Related cases include “Blue Origin” and “Astroscale” referenced below. Thanks and appreciation are given to Matthew Weinzierl, Angela Acocella, and colleagues.

Sources:

Weinzierl, Matthew C., and Angela Acocella. “Blue Origin, NASA, and New Space (A). Harvard Business School Case Collection, 2016.

Weinzierl, Matthew C., and Angela Acocella. “Planetary Resources, Inc., Property Rights, and the Regulation of the Space Economy.” Harvard Business School Case Collection, 2017.

Weinzierl, Matthew, C., Angela Acocella, and Mayuka Yamazaki. “Astroscale, Space Debris, and Earth’s Orbital Commons.” Harvard Business School Case Collection, 2016.

 

SYSTEMS MODEL: SPACE

Utilization of System Dynamics to Model a Self-Sustained Mars Surface Colony

The National Institute of Aerospace hosted the 2015 Revolutionary Aerospace Systems Concepts – Academic Linkage competition, whose objective included establishing a fully functional, self-sustaining Mars surface colony by 2054. Altogether, this task has been broken down into two different components, one involving the development and deployment of colony infrastructure over a 40-year period, and another involving the utilization of system dynamics for studying the steady-state behavior of all surface colony operations. These surface colony operations prove to be multi-faceted, and are comprised of a range of important factors, including colony structure, agriculture and food production, power systems, and communications, all of which can be satisfied by a variety of unique processes. This project details the work done to optimize the system dynamics of all surface colony operations in an effort to find the optimal combination of different technologies that is both self-sustaining and satisfies all competition requirements, an effort carried out through the utilization of both Matlab and Simulink.

“Ultimately, system dynamics, a system-of-systems modeling technique that models continuous behavior over long periods of time, was chosen as the best approach for modeling the problem at hand. System dynamics uses two main components: stocks, the variables of interest to be tracked; and flows, the production and consumption rates of the stocks.”

Stocks

Stocks represent variables of interest to be tracked over the course of an extended period of time. In achieving self-sufficiency, the critical stocks needed to be considered are those of basic human need: water, food, oxygen (O2). Additionally, both solid and liquid waste and carbon dioxide (CO2) are needed to be taken into account. These stocks face constant interactions with one another, examples of which include water being used to produce hydrogen (H2) and O2, and liquid waste being recycled into water. Additionally, the model must also take into account in situ production of methane (CH4) and O2, H2must also be tracked, as it plays a critical role in the production of both O2(for respiration and propellant), H2O, food, CH4(for propellant), H2(for CH4and O2production), CO2, waste (both liquid and solid), and power. With these stocks accounted for, self-sufficiency can be tracked by ensuring that the production rates of these stocks are derived directly as a function of daily consumption rates.” [p. 3]

Flows

“An example of a high-level flow is colony agriculture. Crops require a certain amount of water and light every day, which consumes certain amounts of the water and power stocks; during periodic harvests, they produce food for the colony, which adds to the food stock. [p. 3]

Systems Model: Space

Utilization of System Dynamics to Model a

Self-Sustained Mars Surface Colony

Mars Surface Colony Model Overview

 

Sources:

Yann Charront, Robert Moss, Stephen Edwards, and Dimitri N. Mavris. “Utilization of System Dynamics to Modela Self-Sustained Mars Surface Colony.” Presented at the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, AIAA SPACE 2015: Conference and Exposition, August  31 to September 2, 2015.

Thanks and appreciation to the authors of this model, for sharing it for inclusion in this book.

 

CONCLUSION: SPACE

First Second Chance in History

Perhaps Columbus or Cortés thought they had discovered a new world, but in fact it was not a “new world” to those who already lived there. The first humans to migrate from Africa, or to cross the Bering Strait, may have been amazed by what they found, but even for them it was more of what they already knew. Mexicans founded Tenochtitlan because it was familiar territory, and what became Mexico City was appealingly situated among the marshes and canals they knew so well. Lake Texcoco looked like home.

Space does not look like our home on Earth. We may find water, but that is the only thing that might prove to be an easy factor for settling in (and perhaps not that easy). Space is not the same atmosphere, not the same land, not even the same water. More importantly, space is not where someone already lives—at least as far as we have discovered. Space is not a colonization, as in the colonies of New England, which broke free of their colonizer, England.

In this world of Earth that humans have built, through innovation but also through war, through use of natural resources but also through their misuse, we have made progress but also errors. In the evolution of rights, both human and environmental, we have committed mistakes and may only now be arriving at a glimpse of inclusion and balance. We’ve moved from wheels to wings. In our use of energy—from fire and beyond—we have used up and messed up, but also forged ahead and thought beyond. All the foundations of life as we know it—water, energy, transport, cities, and more— will be rethought in space. Space may be the first, and perhaps only, time in history when we truly will have a second chance.

Even after Americans landed on the moon, walked its terrain, and left a flag (something forbidden in the Outer Space Treaty) in part for its telegenic image, lunar terrain remains not for sale or claim. Are we moving beyond nations?

When space law was first considered, it was not imagined that private enterprise would venture into planetary activities; it was expected that only governments would have enough resources to consider rockets. Yet it is private enterprise that perfected the rocket—and the ability to return it back to Earth, reusable.

The reusability of rockets has transformed space enterprise. Today private enterprise is going ever further, rethinking space with ideas for mining, tourism, transport, and habitation. It’s not surprising that space has attracted entrepreneurship; it’s the ultimate innovation field.

Space is collaborative, with partners sharing innovation, costs, personnel, and benefits. Through such collaboration, a learning environment makes it possible to share innovation and new standards quickly. Finding shared standards on a global level allows rapid advance. The intersection of innovation and collaboration is the cornerstone of learning.

Being from the water planet, we will naturally guide space development through the water nexus. Celestial environments that possess water will offer agua para uso humano (water for human use) as well as sustainable agriculture—essential for sustaining life. Water would have many benefits. Here’s how the Luxembourg’s Law on the Exploration of Space Resources 2017  puts it:

Celestial bodies can contain substantial usable quantities of frozen water. Space explorers will need water to support themselves and plants they may grow in space vehicles or colonies in the future. Water can also be split into oxygen and hydrogen: the first to provide breathable air, the second as a source of fuel to propel exploratory missions deeper into space and to power living quarters and equipment.

How we value, use, share, protect, and renew water, both on Earth and in space, may in part determine our future.

Space may solve our energy quest and save planet Earth in the process, but energy may be required in space. Through space satellite technology, now becoming developed, we may be able to realize what ancient Egypt deified: the energy of the sun. Space solar power could serve all the needs of our world, with plenty left for other worlds that may be on the horizon. Peter Glaser’s vision of space solar power becomes ever more a reality.

Transport brought us to space and as early space flight caused a revolution in aerospace and aviation, fostering new technologies like portable wireless devices, so too will future rocketry, and other forms of getting from here to there, come back to us with improved methods of mobility.

We will build cities in space. Surely and eventually we will stop visiting and instead remain. Everything we know about humans is that we gather into communities for beneficial commons. What have we learned from those who have lived together in the International Space Station? Or the trial communities on Earth that simulate habitation on Mars? Can we find inspiration in Toynbee’s Cities of Destiny?

Space will cause us to use everything we have learned to date; it will demand everything we know. Space will become the proving ground for what we have learned while building our present world. We can only hope that innovations and systems we have built for water, energy, transport, and cities will offer firm foundations for the future. Space will demand everything we know.

Sources:

Luxembourg, Space Resources. “Why is water so vital in space?” http://www.spaceresources.public.lu/en/faq.html. Viewed 30April2018.

Outer Space Treaty, 1967. http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/publications/STSPACE11E.pdfViewed 30 April 2018.

Salter, Alexander. “Space Debris: A Law and Economics Analysis of the Orbital Commons.” Mercatus Working Paper, Mercatus Center, George Mason University, Arlington,VA, USA. September 2015. http://www.mercatus.org/system/files/Salter-Space-Debris.pdf. Viewed 30 April 2018.

Seara, Modesto Vázquez. Cosmic International Law. Translated by Elaine Malley. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1965. www.modestoseara.com. Viewed 30 April 2018.

APPENDIX A: SPACE

Communications Satellite Act of 1962

AN ACT

To provide for the establishment, ownership, operation, and regulation of a commercial communications satellite system, and for other purposes.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled,

TITLE I—SHORT TITLE, DECLARATION OF POLICY AND DEFINITIONS  

SHORT TITLE

Sec. 101. This Act may be cited as the “Communications Satellite Act of 1962.”

DECLARATION OF POLICY AND PURPOSE

Sec. 102. (a) The Congress hereby declares that it is the policy of the United States to establish, in conjunction and in cooperation with other countries, as expeditiously as practicable a commercial communications satellite system, as part of an improved global communications network, which will be responsive to public needs and national objectives, which will serve the communication needs of the United States and other countries, and which will contribute to world peace and understanding.

  • The new and expanded telecommunication services are to be made available as promptly as possible and are to be extended to provide global coverage at the earliest practicable date. In effectuating this program, care and attention will be directed toward providing such services to economically less developed countries and areas as well as those more highly developed, toward efficient and economical use of the electromagnetic frequency spectrum, and toward the reflection of the benefits of this new technology in both quality of services and charges for such
  • In order to facilitate this development and to provide for the widest possible participation by private enterprise, United States participation in the global system shall be in the form of a private corporation, subject to appropriate governmental regulation. It is the intent of Congress that all authorized users shall have nondiscriminatory access to the system; that maximum competition be maintained in the provision of equipment and services utilized by the system; that the corporation created under this Act be so organized and operated as to maintain and strengthen competition in the provision of communications services to the public; and that the activities of the corporation created under this Act and of the persons or companies participating in the ownership of the corporation shall be consistent with the Federal antitrust
  • It is not the intent of Congress by this Act to preclude the use of the communications satellite system for domestic communication services where consistent with the provisions of this Act nor to preclude the creation of additional communications satellite systems, if required to meet unique governmental needs or if otherwise required in the national

 

DEFINITIONS

Sec. 103. As used in this Act, and unless the context otherwise requires–

  • the term “communications satellite system” refers to a system of communications satellites in space whose purpose is to relay telecommunication information between satellite terminal stations, together with such associated equipment and facilities for tracking, guidance, control, and command functions as are not part of the generalized launching, tracking, control, and command facilities for all space purposes;
  • the term “satellite terminal station” refers to a complex of communication equipment located on the earth’s surface, operationally connected with one or more terrestrial communication systems, and capable of transmitting telecommunications to or receiving telecommunications from a communications satellite system.
  • the term “communications satellite’ means an earth satellite which is intentionally used to relay telecommunicationinformation;
  • the term “associated equipment and facilities’ refers to facilities other than satellite terminal stations and communications satellites, to be constructed and operated for the primary purpose of a communications satellite system, whether for administration and management, for research and development, or for direct support of spaceoperations;
  • the term “research and development’ refers to the conception, design, and first creation of experimental or prototype operational devices for the operation of a communications satellite system, including the assembly of separate components into a working whole, as distinguished from the term “production,” which relates to the construction of such devices to fixed specifications compatible with repetitive duplication for operational applications;
  • the term “telecommunication” means any transmission, emission or reception of signs, signals, writings, images, and sounds or intelligence of any nature by wire, radio, optical, or other electromagnetic
  • the term “communications common carrier” has the same meaning as the term “common carrier” as when used in the Communications Act of 1934, as amended, and in addition includes, but only for purposes of sections 303 and 304, any individual, partnership, association, joint-stock company, trust, corporation, or other entity which owns or controls, directly or indirectly, or is under direct or indirect common control with, any such carrier; and the term “authorized carrier”, except as otherwise provided for purposes of section 304 by section 304(b) (1), means a communications common carrier which has been authorized by the Federal Communications Commission under the Communications Act of 1934, as amended, to provide services by means of communications satellites;
  • the term “corporation” means the corporation authorized by title III of this
  • the term “Administration” means the National Aeronautics and Space Administration;and
  • the term “Commission” means the Federal Communications

 

TITLE II—FEDERAL COORDINATION, PLANNING, AND REGULATION

Implementation of Policy

Sec. 201. In order to achieve the objectives and to carry out the purposes of this Act-

  • the President shall–
    • aid in the planning and development and foster the execution of a national program for the establishment and operation, as expeditiously as possible, of a commercial communications satellitesystem;
    • provide for continuous review of all phases of the development and operation of such a system, including the activities of a communications satellite corporation authorized under title III of thisAct;
    • coordinate the activities of governmental agencies with responsibilities in the field of telecommunication, so as to insure that there is full and effective compliance at all times with the policies set forth in thisAct;
    • exercise such supervision over relationships of the corporation with foreign governments or entities or with international bodies as may be appropriate to assure that such relationships shall be consistent with the national interest and foreign policy of the UnitedStates;
    • insure that timely arrangements are made under which there can be foreign participation in the establishment and use of a communications satellite system;
    • take all necessary steps to insure the availability and appropriate utilization of the communications satellite system for general governmental purposes except where a separate communications satellite system is required to meet unique governmental needs, or is otherwise required in the national interest; and
  • so exercise his authority as to help attain coordinated and efficient use of the electromagnetic spectrum and the technical compatibility of the system with existing communications facilities both in the United States and
  • the National Aeronautics and Space Administration shall–
    • advise the Commission on technical characteristics of the communications satellitesystem;
    • cooperate with the corporation in research and development to the extent deemed appropriate by the Administration in the publicinterest;
    • assist the corporation in the conduct of its research and development program by furnishing to the corporation, when requested, on a reimbursable basis, such satellite launching and associated services as the Administration deems necessary for the most expeditious and economical development of the communications satellitesystem;
    • consult with the corporation with respect to the technical characteristics of the communications satellite system;
    • furnish to the corporation, on request and on a reimbursable basis, satellite launching and associated services required for the establishment, operation, and maintenance of the communications satellite system approved by the Commission;and
    • to the extent feasible, furnish other services, on a reimbursable basis, to the corporation in connection with the establishment and operation of the
  • the Federal Communications Commission, in its administration of the provisions of the Communications Act of 1934, as amended, and as supplemented by this Act, shall–
    • insure effective competition, including the use of competitive bidding where appropriate, in the procurement by the corporation and communications common carriers of apparatus, equipment, and service required for the establishment and operation of the communications satellite system and satellite terminal stations; and the Commission shall consult with the Small Business Administration and solicit its recommendations on measure and procedures which will insure that small business concerns are given an equitable opportunity to share in the procurement program of the corporation for property and services, including but not limited to research, development, construction, maintenance, and
    • insure that all present and future authorized carriers shall have nondiscriminatory use of, and equitable access to, the communications satellite system and satellite terminal stations under just and reasonable charges, classifications, practices, regulations, and other terms and conditions and regulate the manner in which available facilities of the system and stations are allocated among such usersthereof;
    • in any case where the Secretary of State, after obtaining the advice of the Administration as to technical feasibility, has advised that commercial communication to a particular foreign point by means of the communications satellite system and satellite terminal stations should be established in the national interest, institute forthwith appropriate proceedings under section 214 (d) of the Communications Act of 1934, as amended, to require the establishment of such communication by the corporation and the appropriate common carrier orcarriers;
    • insure that facilities of the communications satellite system and satellite terminal stations are technically compatible and interconnected operationally with each other and with existing communications facilities;
    • prescribe such accounting regulations and systems and engage insuch ratemaking procedures as will insure that any economies made possible by a communications satellite system are appropriately reflected in rates for public communication services;
  • approve technical characteristics of the operational communications satellite system to be employed by the corporation and of the satellite terminal stations:and
  • grant appropriate authorizations for the construction and operation of each satellite terminal station, either to the corporation or to one or more authorized carriers or to the corporation and one or more such carriers jointly, as will best serve the public interest, convenience, and necessity. In determining the public interest, convenience, and necessity the Commission shall authorize the construction and operation of such stations by communications common carriers or the corporation, without preference toeither;
  • authorize the corporation to issue any shares of capital stock, except the initial issue of capital stock referred to in section 304 (a), or to borrow any moneys, or to assume any obligation in respect of the securities of any other person, upon a finding that such issuance, borrowing, or assumption is compatible with the public interest, convenience, and necessity and is necessary or appropriate for or consistent with carrying out the purposes and objectives of this Act by thecorporation;
  • insure that no substantial additions are made by the corporation or carriers with respect to facilities of the system or satellite terminal stations unless such additions are required by the public interest, convenience, and necessity;
  • require, in accordance with the procedural requirements of section 214 of the Communications Act of 1934, as amended, that additions be made by the corporation or carriers with respect to facilities of the system or satellite terminal stations where such additions would serve the public interest, convenience, and necessity;and
  • make rules and regulations to carry out the provisions of this

TITLE III—CREATION OF A COMMUNICATIONS SATELLITE CORPORATION

Creation of Corporation

Sec. 301. There is hereby authorized to be created a communications satellite corporation for profit which will not be an agency or establishment of the United States Government. The corporation shall be subject to the provisions of this Act and, to the extent consistent with this Act, to the District of Columbia Business Corporation Act. The right to repeal, alter, or amend this Act at any time is expressly reserved.

Process of Organization

Sec. 302. The President of the United States shall appoint incorporators, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, who shall serve as the initial board of directors until the first annual meeting of stockholders or until their successor are elected and qualified. Such incorporators shall arrange for an initial stock offering and take whatever other actions are necessary to establish the corporation, including the filing of articles of incorporation, as approved by the President.

Directors and Officers

Sec. 303. (a) The corporation shall have a board of directors consisting of individuals who are citizens of the United States, of whom one shall be elected annually by the board to serve as chairman. Three members of the board shall be appointed by the President of the United States, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, effective the date on which the other members are elected, and for terms of three years or until their successors have been appointed and qualified, except that the first three members of the board so appointed shall continue in office for terms of one, two, and three years, respectively, and any member so appointed to fill a vacancy shall be appointed only for theunexpired term of the director whom he succeeds. Six members of the board shall be elected annually by those stockholders who are communications common carriers and six shall be elected annually by the other stockholders of the corporation. No stockholder who is a communications common carrier and no trustee for such a stockholder shall vote, either directly or indirectly, through the votes of subsidiaries or affiliated companies, nominees, or any persons subject to his direction or control, for more than three candidates for membership on the board. Subject to such limitation, the articles of incorporation to be filed by the incorporators designated under section 302 shall provide for cumulative voting under section 27(d) of the District of Columbia Business Corporation Act (D.C. Code, sec. 29-911 (d) ).

(b) The corporation shall have a president, and such other officers as may be named and appointed by the board, at rates of compensation fixed by the board, and serving at the pleasure of the board. No individual other than a citizen of the United States may be an officer of the corporation. No officer of the corporation shall receive any salary from any source other than the corporation during the period of his employment by the corporation.

FINANCING THE CORPORATION

Sec. 304. (a) The corporation is authorized to issue and have outstanding, in such amounts as it shall determine, shares of capital stock, without par value, which shall carry voting rights and be eligible for dividends. The shares of such stock initially offered shall be sold at a price not in excess of $100 for each share and in a manner to encourage the widest distribution to the American public. Subject to the provisions of subsections (b) and (d) of this section, shares of stock offered under this subsection may be issued to and held by any person.

  • (1) For the purposes of this section the term “authorized carrier” shall mean a communications common carrier which is specifically authorized or which is a member of a class of carriers authorized by the Commission to won shares of stock in the corporation upon a finding that such ownership will be consistent with the public interest, convenience, and
  • Only those communications common carriers which are authorized carriers shall own shares of stock in the corporation at any time, and no other communications common carrier shall own shares either directly or indirectly through subsidiaries or affiliated companies, nominees, or any persons subject to its direction or control. Fifty per centum of the shares of stock authorized for issuance at any time by the corporation shall be reserved for purchase by authorized carriers and such carriers shall in the aggregate be entitled to make purchases of the served shares in a total number not exceeding the total number of non reserved shares of any issue purchased by other persons. At no time after the initial issue is completed shall the aggregate of the shares of voting stock of the corporation owned by authorized carriers directly or indirectly through subsidiaries or affiliated companies, nominees, or any persons subject to their direction or control exceed 50 per centum of such shares issued and
  • At no time shall any stockholder who is not an authorized carrier, or any syndicate or affiliated group of such stockholders, own more than 10 per centum of the shares of voting stock of thecorporation issued and
  • The corporation is authorized to issue, in addition to the stock authorized by subsection (a) of this section, nonvoting securities, bonds, debentures, and other certificates of indebtedness, as it may determine. Such nonvoting securities, bonds, debentures, or other certificates of indebtedness of the corporation as a communications common carrier may own shall be eligible for inclusion in the rate base of the carrier to the extent allowed by the Commission. The voting stock of the corporation shall not be eligible for inclusion in the rate base of the
  • Not more than an aggregate of 20 per centum of the shares of stock of the corporation authorized by subsection (a) of this section which are held by holders other than authorized carriers may be held by persons of the classes described in paragraphs (1), (2), (3), (4), and (5) of section 310 (a) of the Communications Act of 1934, as amended (47 U.S.C.310).
  • The requirement of section 45 (b) of the District of Columbia Business Corporation Act (D.C. Code,29-920(b))as to the percentage of stock which a stockholder must hold in order to have the rights of inspection and copying set forth in that subsection shall not be applicable in the case of holders of the stock of the corporation, and they may exercise such rights without regard to the percentage of stock they hold.
  • Upon application to the Commission by any authorized carrier and after notice and hearing, the Commission may compel any other authorized carrier which owns shares of stock in the corporation to transfer to the applicant, for a fair and reasonable consideration, a number of such shares as the Commission determines will advance the public interest and the purposes of this Act. In its determination with respect to ownership of shares of stock in the corporation, the Commission, whenever possible distribution of stock among the authorized

 

PURPOSES AND POWERS OF THE CORPORATION

Sec. 305. (a) In order to achieve the objectives and to carry out the purposes of this Act, the corporation is authorized to–

  • plan, initiate, construct, own, manage, and operate itself or in conjunction with foreign governments or business entities a commercial, communications satellitesystem;
  • furnish, for hire, channels of communication to United States communications common carriers and to other authorized entities, foreign and domestic; and
  • own and operate satellite terminal stations when licensed by the Commission under section 201 (c)(7).
  • Included in the activities authorized to the corporation for accomplishment of the purposes indicated in subsection (a) of this section, are, among others not specifically named–
  • to conduct or contract for research and development related to itsmission;
  • to acquire the physical facilities, equipment and devices necessary to its operations, including communications satellites and associated equipment and facilities, whether by construction, purchase, orgift;
  • to purchase satellite launching and related services from the United StatesGovernment;
  • to contract with authorized users, including the United States Government, for the services of the communications satellite system;and
  • to develop plans for the technical specifications of all elements of the communications satellite system.
  • To carry out the foregoing purposes, the corporation shall have the usual powers conferred upon a stock corporation by the District of Columbia Business Corporation

 

TITLE IV—MISCELLANEOUS APPLICABILITY OF COMMUNICATIONS ACT OF 1934

Sec. 401. The corporation shall be deemed to be a common carrier within the meaning of section 3

  • of the Communications Act of 1934, as amended, and as such shall be fully subject to the provisions of title II and title III of that Act. The provision of satellite terminal station facilities by one communication common carrier to one or more other communications common carriers shall be deemed to be a common carrier activity fully subject to the Communications Act. Whenever the application of the provisions of this Act shall be inconsistent with the application of the provisions of the Communications Act, the provisions of this Act shall

NOTICE OF FOREIGN BUSINESS NEGOTIATIONS

Sec. 402. Whenever the corporation shall enter into business negotiations with respect to facilities, operations, or services authorized by this Act with any international or foreign entity, it shall notify the Department of State of the negotiations, and the Department of State shall advise the corporation of relevant foreign policy considerations. Throughout such negotiations the corporation shall keep the Department of State informed with respect to such considerations. The corporation may request the Department of State to assist in the negotiations, and that Department shall render such assistance as may be appropriate.

SANCTIONS

Sec. 403. (a) If the corporation created pursuant to this Act shall engage in or adhere to any action, practices, or policies inconsistent with the policy and purposes declared in section 102 of this Act, or if the corporation or any other person shall violate any provision of this Act, or shall obstruct or interfere with any activities authorized by this Act, or shall refuse, fail, or neglect to discharge his duties and responsibilities under this Act, or shall threaten any such violation, obstruction, interference, refusal, failure, or neglect, the district court of the United States for any district in which such corporation or other person resides or may be found shall have jurisdiction, except as otherwise prohibited by law, upon petition of the Attorney General of the United States, to grant such equitable relief as may be necessary or appropriate to prevent or terminate such conduct orthreat.

  • Nothing contained in this section shall be construed as relieving any person of any punishment, liability, or sanction which may be imposed otherwise than under this
  • It shall be the duty of the corporation and all communications common carriers to comply insofar as applicable, with all provisions of this Act and all rules and regulations promulgated

REPORTS TO THE CONGRESS

Sec. 404. (a) The President shall transmit to the Congress in January of each year a report which shall include a comprehensive description of the activities and accomplishments during the preceding calendar year under the national program referred to in section 201 (a) (1), together with an evaluation of such activities and accomplishments in terms of the attainment of the objectives of this Act and any recommendations for additional legislative or other action which the President may consider necessary or desirable for the attainment of suchobjectives.

  • The corporation shall transmit to the President and the Congress, annually and at such other times as it deems desirable, a comprehensive and detailed report of its operations, activities, and accomplishments under this
  • The Commission shall transmit to the Congress, annually and at such other times as it deems desirable, (i) a report of its activities and actions on anti-competitive practices as they apply to the communications satellite programs; (ii) an evaluation of such activities and actions taken by it within the scope of its authority with a view to recommending such additional legislation which the Commission may consider necessary in the public interest; and (iii) an evaluation of the capital structure of the corporation so as to assure the Congress that such structure is consistent with the most efficient and economical operation of such

Approved August 31, 1962, 9:51 a.m.

From:  Public Law 87-624–Aug. 31, 1962

 

APPENDIX B: SPACE 

Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States

in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space,

including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies

1967

The Outer Space Treaty was considered by the Legal Subcommittee in 1966 and agreement was reached in the General Assembly in the same year ( resolution 2222 (XXI)). The Treaty was largely based on the Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, which had been adopted by the General Assembly in its resolution 1962 (XVIII) in 1963, but added a few new provisions. The Treaty was opened for signature by the three depository Governments (the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom and the United States of America) in January 1967, and it entered into force in October 1967. The Outer Space Treaty provides the basic framework on international space law, including the following principles:

  • the exploration and use of outer space shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries and shall be the province of all mankind;
  • outer space shall be free for exploration and use by all States;
  • outer space is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means;
  • States shall not place nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction in orbit or on celestial bodies or station them in outer space in any other manner;
  • the Moon and other celestial bodies shall be used exclusively for peaceful purposes;
  • astronauts shall be regarded as the envoys of mankind;
  • States shall be responsible for national space activities whether carried out by governmental or non-governmental entities;
  • States shall be liable for damage caused by their space objects; and
  • States shall avoid harmful contamination of space and celestial bodies.

Sources:

For full text, see: http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html.

Viewed 22 September 2018

APPENDIX C: SPACE

DRAFT LAW ON THE EXPLORATION AND

USE OF SPACE RESOURCES (LUXEMBOURG)

1 August 2017

[English translation of the French original text. The French version prevails]

Article 1.

Space resources are capable of being appropriated.

Article 2.

  • No person can explore or use space resources without holding a written mission authorisation from the minister or ministers in charge of the economy and space activities (hereinafter “the ministers”).
  • No person shall be authorised to carry out the activity referred to in paragraph 1 either through another person or as an intermediary for the carrying out of such
  • The authorised operator may only carry out the activity referred to in paragraph 1 in accordance with the conditions of the authorisation and the international obligations of Luxembourg.
  • This Law shall not apply to satellite communications, orbital positions or the use of frequency bands.

Article 3.

The authorisation shall be granted to an operator for a mission of exploration and use of space resources for commercial purposes upon written application to the ministers.

Article 4.

The authorisation for a mission shall only be granted if the applicant is a public company limited by shares (société anonyme) or a corporate partnership limited by shares (société en commandite par actions) or a private limited liability company (société à responsabilité limitée) of Luxembourg law or a European Company (société européenne) having its registered office in Luxembourg.

Article 5.

The authorisation is personal and non-assignable.

Article 6.

The application for authorisation must be accompanied by all such information as may be useful for the assessment thereof as well as by a mission program.

Article 7.

  • The authorisation shall be subject to the production of evidence showing the existence in Luxembourg of the central administration and of the registered office, including the administrative and accounting structures of the operator to be
  • The operator to be authorised shall have a robust scheme of financial, technical and statutory procedures and arrangements through which the exploration and utilization mission, including the commercialisation of space resources are planned and implemented. The operator to be authorised shall furthermore have a robust internal governance scheme, which includes in particular a clear organisational structure with well defined, transparent and consistent lines of responsibility, effective processes to identify, manage, monitor and report the risks it is or might be exposed to, and adequate internal control mechanisms, including sound administrative and accounting procedures, as well as control and security arrangements for its technical systems and
  • The arrangements, processes, procedures and mechanisms referred to in this article shall be comprehensive and proportionate to the nature, scale and complexity of the risks inherent to the business model of the operator to be authorised as well as to the mission for which the authorisation is

Article 8.

  • The authorisation shall be subject to the communication to the ministers of the identity of the shareholders or members, whether direct or indirect, natural or legal persons, that have direct or indirect holdings of at least 10 per cent of the capital or of the voting rights in the operator, and of the amount of such holdings or, if such 10 per cent threshold is not met, the identity of the twenty largest shareholders or members. The authorisation shall be refused if, taking into account the need to ensure a sound and prudent operation, the suitability of those shareholders or members is not
  • The concept of sound and prudent operation is assessed in accordance with the following criteria:
    1. the reputation of the operator to be authorised and the shareholders and members referred to in paragraph1;
    2. the reputation, knowledge, skills and experience of any member of the management body of the shareholders or members referred to in paragraph1;
    3. the financial soundness of the shareholders and members referred to in paragraph 1;
    4. whether there are reasonable grounds to suspect that money laundering or terrorist financing is being or has been committed or attempted in relation to the proposed exploration mission or the proposed utilization of space resources or that such exploration mission or such utilization could increase the risk thereof.

The good repute of the members of the management body of the shareholders or members referred to in paragraph 1 shall be assessed in accordance with the terms of article 9, paragraph 1, second sentence.

Article 9.

  • The authorisation shall be subject to the condition that the members of the management body of the operator shall at all times be of sufficiently good repute and possess sufficient knowledge, skills and experience to perform their duties. Such good repute shall be assessed on the basis of police records and of any evidence tending to show that the persons concerned are of good repute and offer every guarantee of irreproachable conduct.
  • At least two persons must be responsible for the management of the operator. Those persons must be empowered to effectively determine the direction taken by the business. They must possess adequate professional experience by virtue of their having previously carried out similar activities at a high level of responsibility and autonomy in the space industry or in a related sector. Any change in the persons referred to in paragraph 1 shall be communicated in advance to the
  • The ministers may request all such information as may be necessary regarding the persons who may be required to fulfil the legal requirements with respect to good repute and professional experience. The ministers shall refuse the proposed change if these persons are not of adequate professional repute or do not have sufficient professional experience or where there are objective and demonstrable grounds for believing that the proposed change would pose a threat to the sound and prudent management of the operation.
  • Granting the authorisation implies that the members of the management body shall, on their own initiative, notify in writing and in a complete, coherent and comprehensive form, to the ministers any change regarding the substantial information on which the ministers based their investigation of the application for the

Article 10.

  • The application for the authorisation must be accompanied by a risk assessment of the mission. It shall specify the coverage of these risks by personal financial means, by an insurance policy of an insurance undertaking not belonging to the same group than the operator to be authorised or by a guarantee of a credit institution not belonging to the same group than the operator to be
  • The authorisation shall be conditional upon the existence of financial bases that are appropriate to the risks associated with the

Article 11.

  • The authorisation shall be conditional on the operator to be authorised having its annual accounts audited by one or more réviseurs d’entreprises agréés who can show that they possess adequate professional
  • Any change in the réviseurs d’entreprises agréés must be authorised in advance by the ministers.
  • The rules in respect of commissaires, which may form a supervisory board as laid down in the Law of 10 August 1915 on commercial companies, as amended, only apply to operators where the Law on commercial companies mandatorily prescribes it even if there is a réviseur d’entreprise.

Article 12.

The authorisation shall describe the manner in which the operator to be authorised fulfils the conditions of articles 6 to 11, paragraph 1. It may in addition include provisions on:

  • the activities to be carried on within the territory of the Grand Duchy or out of such territory;
  • the limits that could be associated with themission;
  • the modalities for the supervision of themission;
  • the conditions for ensuring compliance by the operator to be authorised with its obligations;

Article 13.

For each application for an authorisation, a fee shall be set by the ministers in order to cover the administrative expenses incurred in relation to the processing of the application. Such fee shall range from 5.000 to 500.000 euros depending on the complexity of the application and the amount of work involved.

A Grand-Ducal regulation shall determine the procedure applicable to the collection of such fee.

Article 14.

  • The authorisation shall be withdrawn if the conditions for the granting thereof are no longer
  • The authorisation shall be withdrawn if the operator does not make use thereof within thirty-six months of it being granted, renounces to it or has ceased to carry out its business for the preceding six
  • The authorisation shall furthermore be withdrawn if it has been obtained through false statements or through any other irregular

Article 15.

The ministers are in charge of the continuous supervision of the missions for which an authorisation has been granted.

Article 16.

The operator that is granted an authorisation for a mission is fully responsible for any damage caused at the occasion of the mission, including at the occasion of all preparatory works and duties.

Article 17.

The granting of an authorisation for a mission does not dispense from the need to obtain other approvals or authorisations.

Article 18.

  • Any person who contravenes or attempts to contravene the provisions of article 2 shall be punished by a term of imprisonment of between eight days and five years and a fine of between 5.000 and 1.250.000 euros or either one of those penalties.
  • Any person who contravenes or attempts to contravene the provisions of articles 5, 9 paragraph 3 subparagraph 1, 11 paragraph 1 or 2 or that contravenes the terms and conditions of the authorisation shall be punished by a term of imprisonment of between eight days and one year and a fine of between 1.250 and 500.000 euros or either one of those penalties.
  • Without prejudice to paragraphs 1 and 2, the court to which the matter is being referred, may declare the discontinuance of an operation contravening the provisions of the present law, under a penalty the maximum of which shall not exceed 1.000.000 euros per day ofinfringement

Date: 2017

Source: http://www.spaceresources.public.lu/content/dam/spaceresources/news/Translation%20Of%20The%20Draft%20Law.pdf.

 

APPENDIX D: SPACE

U.S. COMMERCIAL SPACE LAUNCH COMPETITIVENESS ACT

(PUBLIC LAW NO: 114-90 (11/25/2015)

TITLE I.  SPURRING PRIVATE AEROSPACE COMPETITIVENESS AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP

Spurring Private Aerospace Competitiveness and Entrepreneurship Act of 2015 or the SPACE Act of 2015

(Sec. 102) It is the sense of Congress that it is in the public interest to update the methodology used to calculate the maximum probable loss from commercial space launch liability claims with a validated risk profile approach in order to consistently compute valid and reasonable maximum probable loss values.

The Department of Transportation (DOT) shall: (1) evaluate and, if necessary, develop a plan to update, the methodology used to calculate the maximum probable loss from commercial space launch liability claims; and (2) meet specified criteria in evaluating or developing the plan.

The Government Accountability Office (GAO) shall assess the evaluation and any plan.

The liability coverage of licensees subject to third-party claims exceeding the amount of insurance or demonstration of financial responsibility shall be extended through FY2025.

(Sec. 103) Liability insurance and financial responsibility requirements shall cover space flight participants through FY2025.

(Sec. 104) Certain time constraints in requirements for commercial space launch and reentry experimental permits are repealed. Rockets, reusable launch vehicles that will be launched into a suborbital trajectory, and designs for such vehicles as well as rocket designs shall be covered. DOT may issue an experimental launch or reentry permit notwithstanding the issuance of any launch or reentry license. Neither shall the issuance of such a license invalidate an experimental permit.

DOT may issue an experimental permit for reusable suborbital rockets or reusable launch vehicles that will be launched into a suborbital trajectory or reentered solely for crew training regardless of whether the crew trains before or after obtaining a license.

Experimental permits may also authorize an unlimited number of launches and reentries for a particular suborbital rocket or reusable launch vehicle or reusable launch vehicle design (currently, only for a suborbital rocket design).

No person may operate a reusable launch vehicle (or, as currently, a reusable suborbital rocket) under an experimental permit for carrying any property or human being for compensation or hire.

(Sec. 105) DOT shall report to Congress on approaches for streamlining the licensing and permitting process of launch vehicles, reentry vehicles, or their components, to enable non-launch flight operations related to space transportation.

(Sec. 106) Federal courts shall have exclusive jurisdiction of any claim by a third party or space flight participant for death, bodily injury, or property damage or loss resulting from an activity carried out under the commercial space launch or reentry license.

(Sec. 107) Reciprocal waiver of claims requirements shall apply to space flight participants through FY2025.

(Sec. 108) The Office of Science and Technology Policy shall:

  • assess current, and proposed near-term, commercial non-governmental activities conductedin space;
  • identify appropriate authorization and supervision authorities for such activities;and
  • recommend to Congress an authorization and supervision approach that would prioritize safety, utilize existing authorities, minimize burdens to the commercial space transportation industry, promote the U.S. commercial space sector, and meet U.S. obligations under international treaties.

These requirements shall not apply to the International Space Station (ISS) or any research or development projects using the ISS national laboratory.

(Sec. 109) The bill expresses the sense of Congress concerning space traffic management of federal assets and U.S. private assets in outer space and orbital debris mitigation.

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) shall arrange with an independent systems engineering and technical assistance organization to study alternate frameworks for the management of space traffic and orbital activities.

It is the sense of Congress that the Department of Defense (DOD) plays a vital and unique role in the protection of national security assets in space.

(Sec. 110) DOT, in concurrence with DOD, shall study the feasibility of processing and releasing to any entity safety-related space situational awareness data and information consistent with national security interests and U.S. public safety obligations.

(Sec. 111) DOT shall continue to work with the commercial space sector, including the Commercial Space Transportation Advisory Committee (or its successor organization), to facilitate the development of voluntary consensus standards based on recommended best practices to improve the safety of crew, government astronauts, and space flight participants as that sector continues to mature.

DOT shall also report periodically to specified congressional committees on the progress of the commercial space transportation industry in developing voluntary consensus standards that promote best practices to improve industry safety.

DOT must report to Congress key industry metrics that might indicate readiness of the commercial space sector and DOT to transition to a safety framework that considers space flight participant, government astronaut, and crew safety.

An independent systems engineering and technical assistance organization or standards development organization contracted by DOT shall assess the readiness of the commercial space industry and the federal government to transition to a safety framework that may include regulations.

(Sec. 112) Certain commercial space launch requirements shall apply to government astronauts,defined as any NASA designees who are U.S. government employees or international partner astronauts carried within a launch or reentry vehicle in the course of theiremployment.

(Sec. 113) The sense of Congress is expressed favoring the elimination of duplicative requirements and approvals for commercial launch and reentry operations.

This bill reaffirms that DOT, in overseeing and coordinating commercial launch and reentry operations, should:

  • promote commercial space launches and reentries by the privatesector;
  • facilitate government, state, and private sector involvement in enhancing U.S. launch sites and facilities;
  • protect public health and safety, safety of property, national security interests, and foreign policy interests of the United States;and
  • consult with another executive agency, including DOD or NASA, as necessary to provide consistent application of commercial space launch licensing

DOT must consult with DOD, NASA, and other executive agencies to identify and evaluate all requirements imposed to protect health and safety, safety of property, national security interests, and foreign policy interests of the United States relevant to any commercial launch of a launch vehicle or commercial reentry of a reentry vehicle, and:

  • determine whether the satisfaction of a requirement of one agency could result in the satisfaction of a requirement of another agency,and
  • resolve any inconsistencies and remove any outmoded or duplicative federal requirements or approvals.

DOT shall report annually to Congress on these efforts until no outmoded or duplicative federal requirements or approvals exist.

(Sec. 114) The sense of Congress is expressed regarding operation and use of the ISS.

NASA shall ensure that the ISS remains a viable and productive facility capable of potential U.S. utilization through at least FY2024 (currently, through FY2020).

NASA shall ensure that the ISS as a designated national laboratory:

  • remains viable as an element of overall exploration and partnership strategies andapproaches;
  • is considered for use by all NASA mission directorates for technically appropriate scientific data gathering or technology risk reduction demonstrations; and
  • remains an effective, functional vehicle providing research and test bed capabilities for the United States through at least

(Sec. 115) The sense of Congress is expressed concerning state commercial launch facilities. States and state launch facilities should seek to take proper measures to protect themselves to the extent of their potential liability for involvement in launch services or reentry services, and to compensate third parties for possible death, bodily injury, or property damage or loss resulting from any licensed commercial space launch activity to which the state or state launch facility is involved in launch services or reentry services.

The GAO shall report to Congress on the potential inclusion of all government property, including state and municipal property, in the existing indemnification regime.

(Sec. 116) The GAO shall report to Congress on the use of space support vehicle services in the commercial space industry.

(Sec. 117) The space shuttle program with respect to commercial space flight is replaced by a Space Launch System. The Space Launch System may be used for:

  • payloads and missions that contribute to extending human presence beyond low-Earth orbit and substantially benefit from the System’s uniquecapabilities;
  • other payloads and missions that also benefit substantially from the System’s uniquecapabilities;
  • federal government or educational payloads, on a space available basis, consistent withNASA’s mission for exploration beyond low-Earth orbit;and
  • compelling circumstances, as determined by NASA.

NASA may plan, negotiate, or implement agreements with foreign entities for the launch of payloads for international collaborative efforts related to science and technology using the Space Launch System.

In the case of a compelling circumstance, NASA shall notify Congress of its intent to select the Space Launch System for a specific mission, with a justification for that determination.

TITLE II. COMMERCIAL REMOTE SENSING

(Sec. 201) The Department of Commerce shall report annually to Congress on the implementation of its authority to license private sector parties to operate private remote sensing space systems.

Each such report may include classified annexes necessary to protect the disclosure of sensitive or classified information.

(Sec. 202) Commerce shall report to Congress on the statutory updates necessary to license private remote sensing space systems, taking into account the need to protect national security while maintaining private sector leadership in thefield.

TITLE III.  OFFICE OF SPACE COMMERCE

(Sec. 301) This bill renames the Office of Space Commercialization as the Office of Space Commerce. (Sec. 302) The Office of Space Commerce shall:

  • foster the conditions for the economic growth and technological advancement of the U.S.space commerce industry;
  • coordinate space commerce policy issues and actions withinCommerce;
  • represent Commerce in the development of U.S. policies and in negotiations with foreign countries to promote U.S. spacecommerce;
  • promote the advancement of U.S. geospatial technologies related to space commercein cooperation with relevant interagency working groups; and
  • support federal government organizations working on Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing

 

TITLE IV. SPACE RESOURCE EXPLORATION AND UTILIZATION

(Sec. 402) The bill directs the President, acting through appropriate federal agencies, to:

  • facilitate the commercial exploration for and commercial recovery of space resources byS. citizens;
  • discourage government barriers to the development of economically viable, safe, and stable industries for the commercial exploration for and commercial recovery of space resourcesin manners consistent with U.S. international obligations;and
  • promote the right of U.S. citizens to engage in commercial exploration for and commercial recovery of space resources free from harmful interference, in accordance with suchobligations and subject to authorization and continuing supervision by the federal

A U.S. citizen engaged in commercial recovery of an asteroid resource or a space resource shall be entitled to any asteroid resource or space resource obtained, including to possess, own, transport, use, and sell it according to applicable law, including U.S. international obligations.

(Sec. 403) It is the sense of Congress that the United States does not, by enactment of this Act, assert sovereignty or sovereign or exclusive rights or jurisdiction over, or ownership of, any celestial body. 

Source:

https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/2262/text

 

REFERENCES

“A tower of used books,” wikimedia commons.

Image for Chapter Cover

http://www.esa.int/spaceinimages/Images/2016/09/Gaia_s_first_sky_map.

Why Space is Important

Outer Space Treaty, 1967. http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/publications/STSPACE11E.pdfViewed 30 April 2018.

Salter, Alexander. “Space Debris: A Law and Economics Analysis of the Orbital Commons.” Mercatus Working Paper, Mercatus Center, George Mason University, Arlington, VA, USA. September 2015. http://www.mercatus.org/system/files/Salter-Space-Debris.pdf. Viewed 30 April 2018.

Seara, Modesto Vázquez. Cosmic International Law. Translated by Elaine Malley. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1965. www.modestoseara.com. Viewed 30 April 2018.

Space Resources. “Why is water so vial in space?” http://www.spaceresources.public.lu/en/faq.html. Viewed 30 April 2018.

Problems

Astrobotic Technology, Inc. https://www.astrobotic.com/.

Financing Space

Barker, Mike, “Costs of War Linger 100 Years After Combat Ends: AP Analysis,” Huffington Post, 19 March 2013.

BBC.com.  “Is space exploration a waste of money?” 9 December 1999. Accessed 15 October 2015.

European Space Agency. <http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Human_Spaceflight/International_Space_Station/How_ much_does_it_cost>. European Space Agency website, 14 May 2013. Accessed 23 November 2015.

Google Lunar X Prize: https://lunar.xprize.org

Rocket Failures

“Launch failures: An Atlas Groundhog Day,” Space Review, 9 March 2009.

“Launch failures: Normal, healthy paranoia,” Space Review. 20 January 2014. Moon Express. https://lunar.xprize.org/teams/moon-express.

Plumer, Brad. NASA Wants to keep the international space station going until 2024. Is that a good idea? Washington Post, 8 January 2014. Available from: https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2014/01/09/nasa-plans-to-keep-the-international-space-station-going-until-2024-is-that-a-good-idea/?tid=ss_mail&utm_term=.1b-19572ebdc

Military in Space

Reynolds, Glenn H., Robert P. Merges. “The Role of Commercial Development in Preventing War in Outer Space.” 25 Jurimetrics Journal 130 (1984). Berkeley Law/Berkeley Law Scholarship Repository. 1-1-1984. https://scholarship.law/berkeley.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?.

Solon, Olivia. “Elon Musk: We must colonise Mars to preserve our species in a third world war.” The Guardian. 11 March 2018.  Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/mar/11/elon-musk-colonise-mars-third-world-war. Viewed 4 September 2018.

Space Debris

BBC. “Astronauts tackle air leak on International Space Station.” 31 August 2018. Available from: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-45364155. Viewed 04 September 2018.

European Space Agency. 6th European Conference on Space Debris, 2013. Available from: http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Operations/Space_Debris/ Replay_6th_European_Conference_on_Space_Debris_opening_session

NASA. “Space Debris and Human Spacecraft.” Available from: https://www.nasa.gov/ mission_pages/station/news/ orbital_debris.html. Viewed: 26 September 2013.

United Nations. Office for Outer Space Affairs. “Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects.” September 1972. Available from: http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introliability-convention.html

Wattles, Jackie. “Inside the high-stakes business of tracking space junk.” Money,25 August 2018. Available from:    https://money.cnn.com/2018/08/25/technology/business/agi-space-junk-debris-feature/index.html.  Viewed 04 September 2018.

 Space Treaties: Current or Out of Date?

Sorensen, Jodi. “Space Law: The Outer Space Treaty Turns 50!” 30 January 2017. Spaceflight.http://spaceflight.com/space-law-the-outer-space-treaty-turns-50/. Viewed 19 February 2018.

United Nations. United Nations Treaties and Principles on Outer Space: Text of treaties and principles governing the activities of States in the exploration and use of outer space, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly. ST/SPACE/11. United Nations Publication. No. E.02.I.20. ISBN: 9211009006. http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/publications/STSPACE11E.pdf/. Viewed 19 February 2018.

 

Solutions/ Innovations

Ispace. “ispace Vision Movie: Expand our planet. Expand our future.” Video. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5cMEJTnPq-i/ Viewed 20 February 2018.

Lang, Hannah. “There’s Water Inside The Moon – More Than We Thought.” 24 July 2017. National Geographic. https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/07/water-moon-formed-volcanoes-glass-space- science/. Viewed 20 February 2018.

Lewis, Chloe. “Meet the Japanese company that intends to mine the moon.” 14 March 2017. Mining Global. http://www.miningglobal.com/mining-sites/meet-japanese-company-intends-mine-moon/.Viewed 20 February 2018.

Lunar X Prize. “The Race Is On: Google Lunar XPrize.” https://lunar.xprize.org/teams. Viewed 20 February 2018.

McCubbin, Francis et al. “Nominally hydrous magmatism on the Moon.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. PNAS 2010 June, 107 (25) 11223-11228. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1006677107. http://www.pnas.org/content/107/25/11223

Milliken, Ralph E. and Shuai Li. “Remote detection of widespread indigenous water in lunar pyroclastic deposits.” 24 July 2017. Nature Geoscience 10, 561-565 (2017). DOI: 10.1038/ngeo2993.

http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2993. Viewed 20 February 2018.

Moon Express. “Redefining Possible.” www.moonexpress.com

Nanalyze. “Space Mining Startups Hope to Mine the Moon.” https://www.nanalyze.com/2017/09/space-mining-startups-mine-moon/. Viewed 20 February 2018.

NASA. “Research Suggests Water Content of Moon’s Interior Underestimated.” 14 June 2010. https://www.nasa.go/topics/moonmars/features/lunar_water.html. Viewed 20 February 2018.

Smithsonian. “Mining for Minerals in Space.” https://youtu.be/zHNjhOARJfo.

SpaceX.com. Viewed 3 September 2018.

Sunshine, Jessica et al. “Temporal and spatial variability of lunar hydration as observed by the Deep Impact spacecraft.” 23 October 2009.Science, Volume 326, Issue 5952, pp. 565—568. DOI: 10.1126/science.1179788. http://science.sciencemag.org/content/326/5952/565/. Viewed 20 February 2018.

Wall, Mike. “Mining the Moon’s Water: Q & A with Shackleton Energy’s Bill Stone.” 13 January 2011. Space.com. https://www.space.com/10619-mining-moon-water-bill-stone-110114.html. Viewed 20 February 2018

Walters, Greg. “This Company Plans to Mine the Moon – and It’s Not Alone.” 17 May 2017. Seeker.https://www.seeker.com/space/exploration/this-company-plans-to-mine-the-moon-and-its-not-alone/. Viewed 20 February 2018.

Water in Space

Dunnill, Charles W. and Robert Phillips. “Making space rocket fuels from water could drive a power revolution on Earth.” 27 September 2016. The Conversation. http://theconversation.com/making-space-rocket-fuel-from-water-could-drive-a-power-revolution-on-earth-65854/. Viewed 20 February 2018.

NASA. “Liquid Hydrogen-the Fuel of Choice for Space Exploration” https.www.nasa.gov/topics/technology/hydrogen/hydrogen_fuel_of_choice.html.Viewed 20 February 2018.

NASA. “Water on the Space Station: Rationing and recycling will be an essential part of life on the International Space Station…where the crew will get their water and how they will (re)use it.” 2 November 2000.

Smith, Bryan K. “What kind of fuel do rockets use and how does it give them enough power to get into space?” Scientific American. 13 February 2006. (Also has audio link). https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-kind-of-fuel-do-rock/#. Viewed 20 February 2018.

Fleischman, Tom. “Cornell’s quest: Make the first CubeSat to orbit the moon.” 15 September 2016. Cornell Chronicle. http://news.cornell.edu/stories/2016/09/cornells-quest-make-first-cubesat-orbit-moon/. Viewed 20 February 2019.

Harbaugh, Jennifer, editor. NASA. “Cube Quest Challenge Team Spotlight: Cislunar Explorers.“ 22 May 2017. Updated 7 February 2018. https://www.nasa.gov/directorate/spacetech/centennial_challenges/ cubequest/cislunar-explorers/. Viewed 20 February 2018.

Lang, Hannah. “There’s Water Inside The Moon – More Than We Thought.” 24 July 2017. National Geographic. https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/07/water-moon-formed-volcanoes-glass- space-science/. Viewed 20 February 2018.

Interplanetary Year

Bass, M. The Politics and Civics of National Service: Lessons from the Civilian Conservation Corps, Vista, and AmeriCorps. Brookings Institution Press, 2013. ISBN: 9780815723806.

Cole, O., Jr. The African-American Experience in the Civilian Conservation Corps.1999. ISBN: 0813016606.

Wilson, J. “Community, Civility, and Citizenship: Theatre and Indoctrination in the Civilian Conservation Corps of the 1930s.” Theatre History Studies  23, 2003, 77-92.

UNISPACE

www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/unispaceplus50/background.html. Viewed 22 September 2018.

www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/1982/aconf/aconf_10110_0_html/A

Davidson, Roger. “Unispace: for choir, organ, piano, and percussion.” 1982, inspired by UNISPACE II. (rogerdavidsonmusic.net).

UNISPACE I, facsimile of the print version: www.unoosa.org/pdf/gadocs/A_7285E.pdf.

UNISPACE III report:  www.unoosa.org/pdf/reports/unispace/viennadecIE.pdf

 

Space Elevator

“Thothx Releases Space Elevator Animation.” 22 August 2016. Available from: http:/thothx.com/news-2/

Astrobotics

Astrobotic. “MoonBox™ Terms and Conditions” https://www.astrobotic.com/moon-box/terms/. Viewed 19 February 2018.

Sex in a Space City

NBCNews.com.  “Sex will pose a huge challenge for interstellar travel.” 10/1/2011. Available from: http://www.nbcnews.com/id/44744104/ns/ technology_and_science-space/t/sex-will-pose-huge-challenge-interstellar-travel/#.W42EdLgna70

Asteroid Mining

Anderson, Eric C. Available from: https://en.m.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_C._Anderson. Accessed 2 May 2018.

Calandrelli, Emily. “Deep Space Industries partners with Luxembourg to test asteroid mining technologies.” 5 May 2016. Tech Crunch. https://techcrunch.com/2016/05/05/deep-space-industries- partners-with-luxembourg-to-test-asteroid-mining-technologies/. Viewed 20 February 2018.

CBInsights. “Here’s Why Mining Platinum From Asteroids Could be a Billion-Dollar Opportunity: A single asteroid could contain as much as $50B worth of platinum. Space mining could roil community markets back on earth and startups are taking the first steps to making it happen.” 31 August 2017. https://www.cbinsights.com/research/asteroid-mining-goldman-sachs-platinum/?utm_source=CB+Insights+Newsletter&utm_campaign=5fc4e7180f=ThursNL-8-31- 2017&utm_term=0_9dc05139/. Viewed 20 February 2018.

Deep Space Industries. http://deepspaceindustries.com/. Viewed 20 February 2018.

London Vision Clinic. “How many people have had LASIK surgery?” https://www.londonvisionclinic.com/how-many-people-have-had-lasik-surgery/.  Available from:

https://www.planetaryresources.com/2016/11/planetary-resources-and-the-government-of- luxembourg-announce-e25-million-investment-and-cooperative-agreement/. Viewed 4 September 2018.

Minter, Adam. “Asteroid mining finds an unlikely champion.” 29 July 2017. The Japan Times.https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2017/07/29/commentary/world-commentary/asteroid-mining-finds-unlikely-champion/#.Ws4UqygylDI.

Moon, Mariella. “Luxembourg’s asteroid mining law takes effect August 1: It’s the first of its kind in Europe.” 30 July 2017. Bloomberg. Engadget. https://www.engadget.com/2017/07/30/luxembourg-asteroid-mining-law-august-1/.

Planetary Resources, Inc. https://www.planetaryresources.com/. Viewed 20 February 2018.

Planetary Resources. “Planetary Resources and The Government of Luxembourg Announce Euro 25 Million Investment and Cooperative Agreement: First commercial asteroid prospecting mission to launch by 2020.” Redmond, Washington, 3 November 2016.

Statista. “Most valuable asteroids in the asteroid belt based on mineral land element content (in quintillion U.S. dollars)” 2018. https://www.statista.com/statistics/656143/mineral-and-element-value-of-selected-asteroids/#0/ Viewed 10 October 2018.

Luxembourg at the Forefront

DeMan, Philip. “Luxembourg Law on Space Resources Rests on Contentious Relationship with International Framework.” Working Paper No. 189 – July 2017. Leuven Centre for Global Governance Studies. https://ghum.kuleuven.be/ggs/publications/working_papers/2017/189deman/. Viewed 21 February 2018.

Government of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, Space Resources LU. “Exploring New Frontiers: Draft Law on the exploration and use of space resources.” 1 August 2017. http://www.spaceresources.public.lu/content/dam/spaceresources/news/Translation%20Of%20The% 20Draft%20Law.pdf. Viewed 21 February 2018.

Kaminska, Izabella. “The dark side of space: how capitalism poses a threat beyond Earth.” 14 March 2014. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/02aac296-a920-11e3-bf0c-00144feab7de/Visited 21 February 2018.

Laurent, François. Principes de droit civil français. Volume 6, 3rd edition, 1978.

Le Gouvernement du Grand-Duché de Luxembourg. Project de loi sur l’exploration de l’utilisation des ressources de l’espace. http://www.gouvernement.lu/6481986/Projet-de-loi-espace. Viewed 21 February 2018.

Ram, Allya. “US and Luxembourg frame laws for new space race: National statutes fill in some of the blanks of UN treaty written for cold war era.” 19 October 2017. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/af15f0e4-707a-11e7-93ff-99f383b09ff9. Visited 21 February 2018.

Sunyer, John. “The new market space: Billionaire investors look beyond Earth.” 28 February 2014. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/a441d9bc-9d65-11e3-a599-00144feab7de. Viewed 21 February 2018.

Thatcher, J.B. “King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, Agreements with Columbus of April 17 and April 30, 1492.” In: Christopher Columbus: His Life and Work. 3 Volumes. New York and London: Putnam (1903), vol. 2: 442-251. http://college.cengage.com/history/primary_sources/world/agree_columbus.htm. Viewed 21 February 2018.

Money to Be Made

Desjardins, Jeff. “There’s Big Money to Be Made in Asteroid Mining.” 2 November 2016. Visual Capitalist. http://www.visualcapitalist.com/theres-big-money-made-asteroid-mininig/. Viewed 21 February 2018.

“Leading asteroids based on mineral and element value.”

https://www.statista.com/statistics/656143/mineral-and-element-value-of-selected-asteroids/.Viewed 4 September 2018.

 

Case Study: Comsat

https://archive.org/details/sps91powerfromsp00unse.

Brooke-Lusk, Kathleen E. and George H. Litwin, “Organizing and managing satellite solar power” Space Policy 16 (2000), pp. 145-156.

Clarke, Arthur C. The Exploration of Space. New York: Harper: 1951. Clarke, Arthur C. “Extra-Terrestrial Relays,” Wireless World (1945).

Garrels, Anne. Naked in Baghdad: The Iraq War as seen by NPR’s Correspondent Anne Garrals. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2003. ISBN: 0374529035. (This book was written for National Public Radio using a satellite phone in a suitcase.)

Glaser, Peter E., Frank P. Davidson, and Katinka Csigi.Solar Power Satellites: A Space Energy System for Earth. Chicester, UK: John Wiley & Sons/Praxis Publishing, 1998.

Labrador, Virgil S. and Peter I. Galace, Heavens Fill With Commerce: A Brief History of the Communications Satellite Industry.” SatNews Publishers, 2005. ISBN: 0936361328.

Mueller, Milton. Universal Service: Competition, Interconnection, and Monopoly in the Making of the American Telephone System. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1997.

Pierce, John Robinson. The Beginnings of Satellite Communications. History of Technology Monograph. San Francisco Press, 1968.

Sellers, Wallace O. “Financing ‘Orbital Power & Light, Inc.’”. In: Glaser, Peter E. et al., Solar Power Satellites: A Space Energy System for Earth. Chicester, UK: John Wiley & Sons/Praxis Publishing, 1998.

Verne, Jules. De la terra à la lune or From the earth to the moon. 1965. Various subsequent editions in many languages.

Whalen, David J. The Origins of Satellite Communications, 1945-1965. Washington: Smithsonian Institute Press, 2002.

Whalen, David J. “Communications Satellites: Making the Global Village Possible.” Includes a selective Satellite Chronology from 1945 to 1988. See:

<http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/history/satcomhistory.html>. (Accessed 12/19/04)

 

Case Study: Planetary Resources

Weinzierl, Matthew C., and Angela Acocella. “Blue Origin, NASA, and New Space (A). Harvard Business School Case Collection, 2016.

Weinzierl, Matthew C., and Angela Acocella. “Planetary Resources, Inc., Property Rights, and the Regulation of the Space Economy.” Harvard Business School Case Collection, 2017.

Weinzierl, Matthew, C., Angela Acocella, and Mayuka Yamazaki. “Astroscale, Space Debris, and Earth’s Orbital Commons.” Harvard Business School Case Collection, 2016.

Systems Model: Space

Yann Charront, Robert Moss, Stephen Edwards, and Dimitri N. Mavris. “Utilization of System Dynamics to Modela Self-Sustained Mars Surface Colony.” Presented at the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, AIAA SPACE 2015: Conference and Exposition, August  31 to September 2, 2015.
Systems Model: Space
Yann Charront, Robert Moss, Stephen Edwards, and Dimitri N. Mavris. “Utilization of System Dynamics to Modela Self-Sustained Mars Surface Colony.” Presented at the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, AIAA SPACE 2015: Conference and Exposition, August  31 to September 2, 2015.

Conclusion

Luxembourg, Space Resources. “Why is water so vital in space?” http://www.spaceresources.public.lu/en/faq.html. Viewed 30April2018.

Outer Space Treaty, 1967. http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/publications/STSPACE11E.pdf Viewed 30 April2018.

Salter, Alexander. “Space Debris: A Law and Economics Analysis of the Orbital Commons.” Mercatus Working Paper, Mercatus Center, George Mason University, Arlington,VA, USA. September 2015. http://www.mercatus.org/system/files/Salter-Space-Debris.pdf. Viewed 30 April 2018.

Seara, Modesto Vázquez. Cosmic International Law. Translated by Elaine Malley. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1965. www.modestoseara.com. Viewed 30 April 2018.

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