Building the World

July 26, 2024
by Building The World
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CITIES: Olympian Innovations and Climate Change

“Eiffel Tower” by photographer Tommie Hansen, 2013. Creative Commons 2.0. Included with appreciation.

Paris opens the Olympics today. One hundred years ago, in 1924, the city of lights last hosted the world’s games. What has changed? Each Olympic city endeavors to introduce innovations: this summer, many will reflect responses and solutions to climate change.

River Seine from Bercy by photographer Mortimer62, 2010: Creative Commons 2.0. Included with appreciation.

Beach volleyball will take place at the foot of the Eiffel Tower ( on a temporary beach of imported sand). Real sand will greet Olympic surfers who will ride the waves in Teahupo’o, Tahiti. For the opening ceremony, athletes will float down the Seine (the city’s mayor swam in the river to prove its cleanliness).

The 1964 Tokyo Olympics featured the new Shinkansen rail transit system -profitable from day one. Image: Shinkansen Series N700a at Mt. Fuji by photographer Maeda Akihito, 2021. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.

Hosting the Olympics is both a financial danger and an opportunity for upgraded infrastructure. When Tokyo opened the 1964 Olympics, a new transit system debuted. Shinkansen, Japan’s famed train system, was completed just 10 days before. Timing was ideal: the new train line was profitable from day one, according to financial analysis by Japanese historian of technology Hoshimi Uchida. After the Olympics, Shinkansen expanded its reach: in 2022, there were 16,347 miles (27,245 kilometers) of tracks for trains carrying 382 billion passengers.

When Rio de Janeiro hosted the 2016 Olympics, supermodel Gisele Bündchen graced the opening ceremony. Image: Agéncia Brasil, 2016. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.

But past performance is not a guarantee of future profits. When Tokyo opened the 2020 Olympics (held in 2021 due to the global pandemic) there were no tourists to ride the rails. Hosting was heroic but unprofitable, costing $20 billion. Athens hosted in 2004, building a stadium that not only racked up debt but, some economists state, may have ushered in a financial meltdown. Rio 2016 featured Gisele Bündchen strolling the opening ceremony to “The Girl from Ipanema.” But the city later had to sell off the newly-built Olympic Village at a financial loss. Looking at the numbers from past Olympics, Denver, Colorado bowed out of the running for the 1976 winter Games. Is hosting the Olympics worth it?

Barcelona improved urban infrastructure during its hosting of the Games. Image: “1992 Summer Olympics” logo. Included with appreciation.

Barcelona emerged, in 1992, as a model of success through Olympian planning. New beaches, new transport including rail and a new airport, new telecommunications systems were so effective that a new term in architecture and urban planning emerged: “the Barcelona Effect.” London’s 2012 Olympics proved a new environmental technology: the renovated West Ham tube station offered renewable electricity created by movement of people crossing floors that lighted the entire metro station. Laurence Kemball-Cook, then a graduate student at Loughborough University, designed the technology plan and later formed PaveGen to offer electric floors to offices, hospitals, schools, and other buildings (including dance clubs) with ample foot traffic.

Dominque Perrault, chief architect for the new Olympian facility at Seine-Saint-Denis, also designed the above pictured Hippodrome de Longchamp in Paris. Image: Madeira78, 2018. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.

Will Paris 2024 be a success? Some see renovations in Seine-Saint-Denis – a cluster of 40 small towns – as a means to improve an area plagued by joblessness and crime. After the Games, the area may emerge reborn as a “mixity” of residential and business activity: 40 architects who worked with central planner Dominique Perrault will see if that vision endures. Some worry displaced residents could return only to be priced out. Sustainability is part of the plan: seats for an aquatic center are made from recycled plastic bottle caps collected by children in Seine-Saint-Denis schools. (Kimmelman 2024)

Among the many innovations Paris will bring to the 2024 Olympics is an underground cooling system that will keep athletes comfortable amid the rising heat levels related to climate change. The water-cooled (recycled) technology, part of the Paris vision to be carbon-neutral by 2050, is based on advanced geothermal technology.

Paris: city of COP21 the “Paris Agreement” and city of the 2024 Olympics. Image: “2015 Climate Conference poster,” public domain. Included with appreciation.

The Paris Olympics 2024 will take place in the same city that achieved the COP21 Paris Agreement; this summer’s Games may set new examples of how cities can respond to climate change for a more sustainable, renewable world.

Will Paris light the way for innovations that cities can adopt in climate change? Paris 2024 Summer Olympics Logo. Included with appreciation

Brooke, K. Lusk. Renewing the World: WATER, 2022. ISBN: 9798985035919. https://renewingtheworld.com

Davidson, Frank P. and K. Lusk Brooke, “Shinkansen – National High-Speed Railways,” Chapter 35, Building the World, Volume II, pages 669 -680, 2006. ISBN: 9780313333743.

Kimmelman, Michael. “Hosting the Olympics costs billions. What does a city get back?” 22 July 2024. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2024/07/22/magazne/olympics-city-redevelopment-paris.html

Pavegen.https://www.pavegen.com

Runnerstribe Admin. “Paris Olympics: A Cool Solution to Summer Heat.” 26 March 2024. https://runnerstribe.com/news/paris-olympics-a-cool-solution-to-summer-heat

Shadbolt, Peter. “Future cities may harvest energy from human footsteps” 2014. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2014/12/30/tech/innovation/tomorrow-transformed-energy-harvesting/index.html

July 15, 2024
by Building The World
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ENERGY: Maximizing Minerals Part 3 – Graphite (and Graphene)

Minerals like graphite (and graphene) may be rewriting our energy future. Image: “Electromagnetic induction” animation by Ponor, 2005. Creative Commons 4.0.

Graphite may be one of the answers to the carbon transition. Carbon in its purest crystalline form, graphite is rewriting energy, especially in its related form of graphene. Graphite is basically thousands of layers of graphene. What are these two and why are they named after writing?

If you have ever taken a test or made notes with a pencil, chances are it is No. 2 “lead”. In fact, it is not lead (as was originally thought, hence the name) but made with graphite. Because graphite comes in a variety of options: H markings designate its hardness (2 or even 3 for a harder core) or B for blackness of resultant writing.

Graphite is commonly used in pencils. Some say the pencil was an early enabler of widespread education. Image: “HB pencils” by photographer Dmgerman, 2007. Creative Commons 3.0.

What is graphite and why it is called by that name? Around 1550, in Borrowdale, Cumbria, England, sheep farmers who discovered a large deposit of the mineral found it very effective for marking sheep, identifying those in their herds and flocks.

Graphite was originally used in Borrowdale, England, to write on lambs and sheep. Image: “Sheep, Stodmarsh, Kent, England” by photographer Keven Law, 2008. Creative Commons 2.0.

Writing on sheep soon expanded to centering this new material in casings of wood to be used as a writing instrument. We can credit Abraham Gottlob Werner for coining the term graphite (“writing stone”). Thus was born the pencil. It was so effective at writing, and so abundant in nature (along with wood to encase it), that some historians credit the invention of the pencil with the expansion of public education. No longer would a quill be needed.

Before graphite pencils, quills and ink were needed for writing. Image: “The Bookkeeper” by Philip van Dijk, circa 1725. From Gallery Prince Willem V, The Hague, Netherlands. Creative Commons0 1.0: public domain.

Graphite proved versatile. Resistant to heat, yet malleable, it came to be used in lining molds for cannonballs. It could be fashioned into a crucible, a container for mixing metals at high temperatures. Graphite became so important in England that it was controlled by the Crown.

Cannonballs may not be used in modern warfare, but persist in mythology. Here, Marvel Comics “Cannonball” from X-Men, 2007. Image: fair use. With appreciation to Marvel Comics.

Because graphite is resistant to heat, and also can conduct electricity, it entered a new era in the 1970s for use in batteries. Graphite is an excellent anode (the electrode of a polarized electrical device through which a positive current enters the device). Its partner, the cathode, is where current leaves the device. These words, too, were coined. In 1834, William Whewell and Michael Faraday discussed the need for a name. They decided upon the inspiration of nature, following the path of the sun. Anode was patterned on Greek for “ano = upwards” + “odos = the way” – it was a model of the sun rising. Cathode was from the Greek “kath = down” + “odos = the way.”

Anode and Cathode were named after the rising and setting of the sun. Image: “Sun Animation” by designer Sfls4309pks, 2018. Creative Commons 4.0.

Graphite is a dominant anode material in lithium-ion batteries. Manufacturers of batteries and related applications continue to develop innovations for graphite use. Graphite is so important in industry that more than 60,000 patent applications for graphite technologies were filed in the decade 2011 to 2021: China filed 47,000.

“Lithium cobaltate vs graphite lithium-ion battery schematic” by Sergey WereWolf, 2016. Donated by the graphic artist to the public domain, Creative Commons0 1.0. Included with appreciation.

Generally, graphite is mined. Most comes from China, India, Brazil, Turkey, and North Korea; it was also once mined in the United States. World reserves of graphite can be found in Turkey, China, Brazil, but also Madagascar, Mozambique, Sri Lanka and Tanzania. Purity varies: Sri Lanka has deposits with a purity of 99%. Ride a Sri Lankan graphite mine elevator here.

Graphite Mine in Kmegalle, Sri Lanka, circa 1897. Image from Cassell & Co. This image is in the public domain.

Graphite can also be synthesized: Edward G. Acheson was the first to do so Like many scientific discoveries, it happened by accident. But the patent Acheson received in 1896 opened a new industry for synthetic graphite.

Acheson Process for synthesizing graphite. Image: “Acheson furnace” by graphic artist Quasihuman. Creative Commons 3.0.

Graphite can be recycled, with the resultant powder used to amplify the carbon content of molten steel. Recovering graphite from batteries or lubricants (or the core of nuclear reactors) involves sulfuric acid curing, leaching, and calcination to separate reusable graphite. In current practice, recycling of the cathode part of batteries has been common, but less so the spent anode graphite. But with scarce new resource supply and environmental trends, regneration of spent graphite anodes from electric vehicle batteries will increase (Shang, et al., 2014). The global market for recycled graphite is still small: $45 million in 2021 projected to grow to $110 million by 2031 – maybe much more.

Graphite may be most valuable as the parent source of graphene, which is extracted from the mineral. Graphite is composed of layers with rings of carbon atoms that are spaced in horizontal sheets. Graphene is derived from Some herald graphene as the future of sustainable materials. It is used in applications as diverse as mobile phones and solar panels. It’s pure carbon and it is strong – more than 200 times stronger than steel. And it’s light – five times lighter than aluminum. It has thermal properties, it conducts electricity. In batteries, graphene could increase battery life by 10 times, shorten charging time. Because it is so light, yet powerful, graphene is ideal for batteries that power drones. Because it is heat resistant, graphene could lessen the danger of batteries overheating.

Graphene nanoribbon band structures. Graphic by Saumitra R. Mehrotra and Gerhard Klimeck, at www.nanoHUB.org. Creative Commons 3.0.

So, is graphene the same as graphite? No, but they are related. the International Union for Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) made the key differentiation. Graphite is three-dimensional. While scientists knew about it, graphene was difficult to isolate. In 2004, Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov succeeded at the University of Manchester. In 2010, they received the Nobel Prize in Physics. Their process involved pulling graphene layers from graphite. The Prize noted “groundbreaking experiments regarding the two-dimensional material graphene.” (Nobel Prize 2010) It should be noted that subsequent discussion revealed the omission of Philip Kim of Columbia University; Geim responded he would gladly have shared the Prize with Kim.

Identification of graphene from graphite merited the Nobel Prize in 2010. Image: “Nobel Medal” by photographer Klaviaturka, 2018. Creative Commons 4.0.

Graphite is the crystalline form of carbon. It comes in three forms: amorphous, flake, and vein. It can be found in coal and shale. Flake carbon has the highest carbon content : 85-98 percent. Vein carbon is rare. but pure carbon up to 99 percent (it is now mined in Sri Lanka). Back in the early days, graphite was burned but in 1779 it was found to emit carbon dioxide under combustion. So, is graphite part of the carbon problem? Perhaps. Graphite is the most stable form of carbon, but it can release carbon emissions during a process called spheroidisation during which carbon flakes are placed in a mechanical process that rounds the particles. It’s a process that improves anode performance, but some flakes are lost and produce emissions. Most carbon emissions associated with graphite, however, come from the carbon-based fossil fuels that power the processes of its manufacturing into products.

“Graphite” by photographer Alchemist hp, 2014. Creative Commons 3.0.

Because it is pure carbon, graphite can become coal, and could theoretically be used as a fuel. But it is so valuable in so many other applications, like batteries, that its future as a fuel is most unlikely and environmentally undesirable. But there is one other high value thing that graphite, under very high pressure and intense heat, could become – a diamond.

A diamond is carbon. Image: “Tacori 2620 Round Diamond” by TQ Diamonds, 2010. Creative Commons 3.0.

Karn, Raushan and Eswara Prasad. “Graphite Recycling Market: 2022 – 2031.” Allied Market Research Report A31811. https://www.alliedmarketresearch.com/graphite-recycling-market-A31811

Nobel Prize. “The Nobel Prize in Physics 2010.” https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2010/summary/

Novoselov, K. S. et al., “Electric Field Effect in Atomically Thin Carbon Films.” 22 October 2004, Science, Volume 306, Issue 5696, pages: 666-669. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1102896

Shang, Zhen, et al. “Recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries in view of graphite recovery: A review. 2024. eTransportation, Volume 20, May 2024, 100320. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2590116824000109

Smallman, R. E. (CBE), et al. “Carbon Range.” Modern Physical Metallurgy and Materials Engineering (Sixth Edition), 1999. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/carbon-range

Pencils.com. “What is a No. 2 Pencil?” https://pencils.com/pages/no-2-pencil

World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). Graphite and its Applications. 2023. ISBN: 978-92-805-3513-6. https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo-pub-1083-en-patent-landscape-report-graphite-and-its-applicatinos.pdf

Zhang, Y, Small, J.P., Pontius, W.V., Kim, P. “Fabrication and electric-field-dependent transport measurements of mesoscopic graphite devices.” Applied Physics Letters. 86 (7): 073104. https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0410314

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

July 10, 2024
by Building The World
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WATER/ENERGY: Deep Seabed Mining

The deep seabed is home to marine life, but also contains minerals now subject to mining. Image: “Marine Life” by Jerred Seveyka, Yakima Valley College, 2020. Creative Commons 2.0. Included with appreciation.

The International Seabed Authority (ISA) finance committee begins this week to build upon legal and technical committee recommendations regarding whether to allow robotic bulldozers to rip up the deep seabed in search of minerals and metals to power renewable energy needed to stop climate change.

There is still time to stop seabed mining before it starts. Image: “Animated Clock” by Wikimedia Deutschland e. V. Animators Kunal Sen & Tisha Pillal. Creative Commons 4.0.

It is more than ironic to mine the deep seabed to stop climate change. It could be irreparably tragic. But there is still time.

World Bank and International Energy Agency estimate a 500% increase in demand for battery metals and minerals like cobalt by 2050. Now, cobalt is mined on land, with some concerns about environmental damage. Is deep seabed better? Do we really need to deploy explosives and bulldozers to blast open seamounts and crusts for cobalt, manganese, nickel, titanium? Not only will such invasive actions damage the direct area, but ocean currents certainly will carry the effects further.

Clarion-Clipperton Zone, between Hawaii and Mexico, contains more minerals than all the land-based supply. But should we mine the deep seabed? Image: “Clarion-Clipperton Zone” by NOAA, 2011. Public Domain.

The deep seabed’s seamounts and crusts – the same environments where minerals are formed – are habitats of corals, crabs, fish, sea stars, and marine seagrasses of more than 70 species. Recently, the UK’s National Oceanography Centre’s Seabed Mining and Resilience To Experimental Impact (SMARTEX) explored the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) between Hawaii and Mexico, finding new lifeforms including a sponge with the longest-known lifespan on Earth – 15,000 years. The CCZ is home to vast marine life, including 5,578 species – 88% of which are newly discovered and not even named. The CCZ’s polymetallic nodules contain more key metals than the entire world’s land-based reserves, making it prime prospecting territory. But is it necessary? Do we really need deep seabed mining for minerals like cobalt?

Cobalt mined in Schneeberg, Saxony, Germany. Image by photographer Privoksalnaja, 2013. Public Domain.

Cobalt is recyclable and reusable. So is nickel. Companies and governments that use such minerals find it easier to obtain “virgin” mineral resources than to engage in recycling. European Commission currently proposes negating Directive 2006/66/EC and upgrading Regulation (EU) No 2019/1020 to require more recycling. Cobalt and copper are largely recycled but most minerals and metals have recycling rates under 34%; some just 1%.

Should the International Seabed Authority (ISA) call for a moratorium on exploitation mining? Now is the time to express your opinion. “ISA Logo” Public Domain.

The International Seabed Authority (ISA) issues and approves contracts for exploration of the deep seabed beyond national territories. ISA has the power to grant exploitation – mining. Recent actions by member nation Nauru triggered an acceleration that may lead to exploitation contracts as soon as this summer. Right now, ISA’s future leadership is about to be decided in a coming election. It is a critical time. The marine environment needs your support now.

Marine life needs your support. ISA is about to decide the future. Express your opinion while there is still time. Image: “Aluterus scriptus” by photographer Peter Cremer, 2011. Creative Commons 4.0.

Like outer space, the deep seabed belongs to everyone on Earth. The Clarion-Clipperton Zone (outside of national jurisdiction of coastal abutters) belongs to you. Will you join Sir David Attenborough and other scientists to call for the International Seabed Authority to enact a moratorium on exploitation contracts for seabed mining? Sign the petition here.

Don’t let the sun set on the time to express your opinion on seabed mining. Image: “Wood Point Jetty Sunset” by John, 2002. Creative Commons 2.0.

Brooke, K. Lusk. “Buried Treasure and Speedo Diplomacy.” Renewing the World: Casebook for Leadership in Water (2024) Case #6: pages 55-66. ISBN: 979-8-9850359-5-7. https://renewingtheworld.com

Brooke, K. Lusk “Deep Seabed Mining.” 18 July 2023. Building the World Blog. https://blogs.umb.edu/buildingtheworld/2023/07/13/water-energy-deep-seabed-mining-part-2/

European Commission. “European Commission Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council concerning batteries and waste batteries, repealing Directive 2006/66/EC and amending Regulation (EU) No 2019/1020.

Greenpeace. “Stop Seabed Mining Before It Starts.” https://www.greenpeace.org/international/act/stop-deep-sea-mining/

International Seabed Authority (ISA). https://www.isa.org.jm

Lipton, Eric. “Fight Over Seabed Agency Leadership Turns Nasty.” 4 July 2024. New York Times. https://wwwnytimes.com/2024/07/04/us/politics/seabed-agency-mining.html

Miller, K.A., et al., “Challenging the Need for Deep Seabed Mining From the Perspective of Metal Demand, Biodiversity, Ecosystems Services, and Benefit Sharing.” 28 July 2021. Frontiers in Marine Science: Ocean Sciences and Ethics. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2021.706161/full

Ocean Foundation, The. “Defend the Deep.” FILM by Richard Charter of The Ocean Foundation and Liz Rubin of Ecodeo https://youtu.be/C4uu03DiVhE?si=Wa1ZAeavBJ_N2Bd2

Ocean Foundation, The. “Deep Seabed Mining.” https://oceanfdn.org/deep-seabed-mining/

Oceanographic. “Over 5,000 new species discovered in the Pacific’s deep sea.” 26 May 2023. https://oceanographicmagazine.com/news/5,000-new-species-found-in-clarion-clipperton-zone/

Rabone, Muriel, et al., “How many metazoan species live in the world’s largest mineral exploration area?” 19 June 2023. Current Biology. Volume 33, Issue 12, Pages 2383-2396, E5. https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(23)00534-1

SMARTEX. “Seabed Mining and Resilience to Experimental Impact.” https://smartexccz.org

Starr, Michelle. “Alien-Looking Species Seen For First Time Ever in Ocean’s Darkest Depths.” 7 June 2024. https://www.sciencealert.com/alien-looking-species-seen-for-first-time-ever-in-oceans-darkest-depths

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). “Recycling Rates of Metals: A status report.” 2011. ISBN: 978-92-807-3161-3. https://www.resourcepanel.org/reports/recyclilng-rates-metals

World Wildlife Fund. “Future mineral demand can be met without deep seabed mining as innovative technology can cut mineral se by 58%.” 28 November 2022. https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?7087466/Future-mineral-demand-can-be-met-without-deep-seabed-mining-as-innovative-technology-can-cut-mineral-use-by-58

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

July 4, 2024
by Building The World
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CITIES: Fireworks? Or a New Sky!

July 2024: month of celebrations and aerial art. Is it time for a new sky? Image: “Everlasting Fireworks” from Nagaoka Festival 2012, looped by Jahobr, 2020. Creative Commons 3.0 Included with appreciation.

July 2024: a month of celebratory aerial art. It is time for a new sky?

“Boston Pops Esplanade Orchestra” by Garrett A. Wollman, Creative Commons 2.0. Included with appreciation.

July 4: In the United States, today marks Independence Day with festive sky illuminations over cityscapes from Alabama (“Thunder on the Mountain”) and Arizona (Scottsdale’s WestWorld) to Massachusetts with the Boston Pops on the city’s Esplanade playing the war-related “1812 Overture ” complete with cannon fire supplied by 101st Field Artillery accompanied by fireworks, and James Taylor at Tanglewood, all the way to Wyoming where Lander hosts a rodeo and celestial conflagration.

“Fly Over Bastille Day, 2017.” by Chief Petty Officer Michael McNabb, 2017. Public Domain. Included with appreciation.

July 14: Bastille Day follows suit. Fireworks with the Eiffel Tower as background are a classic on this National Day. There a military parade on the Champs-Elysées. Some would observe that many national anthems celebrate war (can we celebrate peace?). Fireworks clog already-polluted urban air.

“Olympic rings in the Place du Trocadéro” by .Anja, 2017. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.

July 26: the Paris Olympics will feature 10,500 athletes floating along the Seine river in national team boats, with opening ceremony finale at the Trocadéro. Fireworks often illumine Olympic celebrations.

TIME FOR A NEW SKY?

Time for a New Sky? Image: “New” by Neji. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.

But there are at least two public health reasons why fireworks should no longer be the light show of choice: urban pollution and risk of wildfires. And now, there is a technological opportunity to consider a new sky.

AIR POLLUTION

Air over cities can improve. “Fanhe Town, Tieling, China: 10 day interval contrast” by Tomskyhaha, 2019. Included with appreciation.

Air pollution and urban smog are a global problem. But this July, two places may have options for cleaner air. In the USA, many cities suffer air quality issues from ozone with Los Angeles, California the worst, followed by Phoenix, Arizona; Denver, Colorado; Houston, Texas; Las Vegas, Nevada; Chicago, Illinois; and Albuquerque, New Mexico having trouble (descending order). And then there is particulate pollution – deadly to lungs where tiny pieces lodge, causing chronic conditions and also deadly disease. From Bakersfield, Fresno, San Francisco/Oakland, and Los Angeles in California (highest) to Corpus Christi, Texas and Las Vegas, Nevada, the health of urban citizens is at risk.

Paris suffers air quality problems well above World Health Organization recommended limits. Levels of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and particulate matter have declined since France placed limits on diesel-fueled vehicles, but clouding the skies with explosions, however artistic, stresses the respiratory tracts of viewers, not to mention Earth’s atmosphere. Figures reveal that 7,900 premature deaths could have been avoided in Paris in 2022 if pollution were better controlled. What about 2024?

WILDFIRES

Wildfires in Canada are so large they can be seen from space. European Space Agency (ESA), Sentinel-2A, observed: “Athabasca River, near Fort McMurray fire, Alberta, Canada.” Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation to ESA.

Climate change has brought increasing drought and with it, wildfires. In the United States, California is so prone to wildfires that the state established a tracking dashboard for residents to evaluate daily risk. So far, this summer has seen the Basin fire covering 13,980 acres (26% contained); the Bolt 3-2 fire damaging 10, 353 acres (98% contained). To date, 147,012 acres have burned: up 394%. The site also lists water shortages. Canada also suffered extensive wildfire damage in recent years (see above images from Sentinel-2A).

Did you know that wildfires peak around holidays when local folks set off their own fireworks at their house or area field? According to the US Forest Service, wildfires saw a predictable spike on July 4 during the period of 1992 to 2020. So-called “Roman candles” in Washington, DC burned down a 76-person residential building last week. In 2023, 9,700 people sought hospital emergency treatment for firework-linked injuries: half were children.

A NEW SKY

Drones offer new sky art. Image: “Intel Drone 100 Light Show” by Ars Electronica Futurelab, 2015. Photography by Preetam Choudhury, 2015. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.

With threats of air pollution and wildfires, some cities are opting out of traditional fireworks and turning to drone sky art. Boulder, Colorado pivoted to drone shows after the Marshall Fire (2021/22) took two lives and 6,000 acres (2,428 hectares). California’s La Jolla and Ocean Beach opted for sky animations six years ago. Napa, a city known for festive toasts, will take precaution in the midst of a dangerous heat wave with attendant fire risks to present July 4th 2024 air choreography by 400 drones. In the UK, at the coronation of King Charles III, the light show was delivered by drones. At the recent Tokyo Olympics, drones ascended to offer sky art.

Drones are becoming a good investment: the market has grown from nil to $1 billion in 2021. Drone stocks are soaring – some as high as the new sky art we may see this July.

Technology offers an opportunity for a new sky. Is now the time? “6/60/Dronc gif” by BQ20 H. Vargas, 2020. Creative Commons 4.0 Included with appreciation.

For a light show, by drone, click here.

American Lung Association. “State of the Air: Most Polluted Cities in 2024.” https://www.lung.org/research/sota/city-rankings/most-polluted-cities

Brooke, K. Lusk. “A New Sky.” 4 July 2023. Building the World Blog. https://blogs.umb.edu/buildingtheworld/2023/07/04/cities-wildfires-fireworks-and-a-new-sky/

Bogle, Jeff. “The Best Fireworks Displays in Every State.” 27 June 2024. Reader’s Digest.

Calmatters. “Track California Wildfires 2024.” https://calmatters.org/california-wildfire-map-tracker/

Kiszla, Cameron. “Fireworks can be breathtaking in more ways than one.” 3 July 2024. KTLA. https://ktla.com/news/local-news/fireworks-air-quality/

Maggiacomo, Taylor. “You don’t need your own fireworks to celebrate July 4.”4 July 2024. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/live/2024/07’02/opinion/thepoint/you-dont-need-your-own-fireworks-to-celebrae-july-4

Napa, California. “Drone Show to Light Up Napa’s 4th of July Celebrations.” https://www.cityofnapa.org/CivicAlerts.aspx?AID=716.

RFI. “Paris air pollution still too high.” https://www.rfi.fr/en/france/20230413-paris-air-pollution-still-too-high-despite-slight-improvement

Tchaikovsky, Pyotr Ilyich. “1812 Overture – with Cannons” listen here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QUpuAvQQrC0

Williams, Ashley R. “Some US cities are replacing 4th of July fireworks with environmentally friendly drones.” 2 July 2023. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2023/07/02/us/drones-replace-july-fourth-fireworks-trnd

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

June 20, 2024
by Building The World
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ENERGY/WATER: Summer – Full Steam Ahead

Steam is needed to brew beer. Image” “THAT is what I like,” by photographer Alan Levine, 2012. Creative Commons 2.0. Included with appreciation.

Today is the solstice. It’s summer – in some parts of the world – perfect weather for enjoying a cold drink on a hot day. Chances are that beverage, and its glass, were brought to you by steam. Brewing craft beer, sterilizing dental or medical instruments, cooking, heating – all these activities require steam. Fossil fuels power 73% of energy in the United States: 40% is used to make steam. Usually produced by boilers, powered by coal, gas, or oil, the industry standard could soon change.

Beer brewing may be the same, but steam is changing. Image: “Beer at the bottom of a glass” by photographer Specious, 2009. Creative Commons. Included with appreciation.

Transitioning to a new energy source often requires installing new, expensive infrastructure – think electric vehicles and charging stations. But if the same infrastructure could be used, phasing out and phasing in could be seamless. That is the case with emerging technology of green steam, A similar advantage can be found in biofuels for aviation: sustainable aviation fuels can be pumped into jet aircraft now using fossil-based kerosene. Saving costs of building new infrastructure, saving costs of removing old systems, saving jobs by keeping the same personnel, and saving energy – it is a win worth getting steamed up about.

Aeolipile – from Knight’s American Mechanical Dictionary, 1876. Image: Public Domain.

The first steam engine, called the aeolipile was described by Vitruvius who also wrote about the Roman Aqueducts. In 1712, Thomas Newcomen, said by some to be the progenitor of the Industrial Revolution, invented an atmospheric engine powered by steam – it pumped water out of coal mines, thus advancing the use of coal for energy. Since Newcomen, steam has been made by burning coal, or other fossil carbon-based fuels.

How coal powers steam. Image: “Coal-fired power plant diagram,” by Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), 2013. Public Domain.

Enter Spirax Sarco. The UK-based powerhouse is testing a zero-carbon boiler for a food manufacturer. The food and beverage industry produces 11% of the world’s greenhouse gases – same as the total emissions for Belgium. The food and beverage industry contributes $412 billion to the U.S. economy. In the EU, the industry employs 4 million people. Developing zero carbon steam technologies for this industry will help to meet global climate goals.

Steam is a natural phenomenon. Image: “Grand Prismatic Spring with steam rising from Excelsior Geyser.” by Frank Kovalcheck, 2008. Creative Commons 2.0. Included with appreciation.

Steam didn’t need to be invented. It has been a product of the Earth longer than humans have been on the planet. Visit Iceland and you’ll see steam rising from the geysers. Steam uses water: in a drought-threatened world, more efficient steam can save water and reuse this critical resource. Beer brewing is one example of using water and steam, with a few other ingredients. The beverage is so traditional it is made by the monks of the Abbey of Our Lady of Saint-Remy, Belgium, a Cistercian Order of Strict Observance. You can’t enter the monastery, but you can toast with their beer, made by traditional processes.

“Brewery in the Abbey of Our Lady of Saint-Remy, Belgium, of the Cistercian Order of Strict Observance.” By photographer, Luca Galuzzi. Creative Commons 2.5. Included with appreciaiton.

Enter AtmosZero. The US-based start-up company that just received Series A funding by Engine Ventures along with backing by Constellation Energy Corporation, Energy Impact Partners, Starlight Ventures, and AENU, is developing a boiler driven by heat pump technology. The U.S. Department of Energy awarded AtmosZero a $3 million grant for Industrial Efficiency and Decarbonization. The innovative Boiler 2.0 is a “drop-in” system that can replace carbon fossil-fueled equipment. The system generates two times more heat than its energy input. An early adopter and beta-tester: New Belgium Brewing, a craft beer company in Colorado. Cheers!

Can green steam decarbonize the beverage industry? Image: “Absinthe Robetter” by Privat-Livemont, 1896. U.S. Library of Congress. Public Domain.

AENU. https://www.aenu.com

AtmosZero. https://atmoszero.energy

Brooke, K. Lusk. “TRANSPORT: New ‘Wingprint’ for Aviation.” 29 November 2023. Building the World Blog. https://blogs.umb.edu/buildingtheworld/2023/11/29/transport-new-wingprint-for-aviation/

Constellation Energy Corporation. https://www.constellationenergy.com

Energy Impact Partners. https://www.energyimpactpartners.com

Engine Ventures. https://engineventures.com

National Museums Scotland. “Thomas Newcomen’s Steam Engine.” https://www.nms.ac.uk/explore-our-collections/stories/science-and-technology/newcomen-engine/

New Belgium Brewing. https://www.newbelgium.com

SpiraxSarco. https:spiraxsarco.com

Starlight Ventures. https://starlight.vc

Vitruvius. De Architectura. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Ronan/Texts/Vitruvius/home,html

Winrow, Michael. “Why green steam is a hot issue for business.” 25 April 2024. BBC.com. https//www.bbc.com/news/business-68687140

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

June 8, 2024
by Building The World
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WATER: World Oceans Day

World Ocean Map by Quizimodo, 2007. Dedicated to the public domain by the artist and included with appreciation.

June 8 is World Oceans Day, launched in 2016 by its Youth Advisory Council, and supporting this year’s 2024 theme: “Catalyzing Action for Our Ocean & Climate” highlighting the message of one ocean, one climate, one future – together.” Here are three ways you can participate:

Protect the ocean and all who live within our blue commons. Image: “Florescent Coral” by Erin Rod, 2019. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.

Protect the High Seas – did you know that not every country has ratified the High Seas Treaty? Areas beyond national jurisdiction belong to the whole world – including you. If your country has yet to act, contact leaders to urge signing now. Related to the High Seas Treaty is the initiative to protect 30% of ocean habitat by 2030. Check who’s on board here.

The deep seabed contains minerals: should we permit mining? Now is the time to become involved in this decision. The deep seabed belongs to all – including you. Image: “Deep Sea Mining Possible Zonex” by NOAA, 2011. Public Domain. Included with appreciation.

Defend the Deep – ironically, signatories of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) are also those who may apply to the International Seabed Authority for contracts permitting deep seabed mining. This summer, decisions will be made regarding mining the seabed for minerals like cobalt. The argument for is that renewable energy requires battery storage powered by these minerals, now becoming depleted on land but abundant in the deep seabed. The argument against is that mining the deep seabed will surely be environmentally dangerous and very difficult to remediate. According to studies verified by Sir David Attenborough and hundreds of scientists, metals and minerals like cobalt are 100% recyclable. We do not need to mine the sea to power the future. Voice your opinion here.

Pathway of plastic to ocean. How can you support the Global Plastics Treaty? Image: Our World in Data, CC4.0. included with appreciation.

Support the Global Plastics Treaty – how many times have you spotted plastic litter on a beach, or seen a photo of the tragic consequences of plastic for marine life? In Nairobi, the UN Environment Assembly agreed to an international legally binding agreement to address the plastic production cycle from design to disposal. Support the world’s development of a global plastics treaty here.

Celebrate and support World Ocean Day. Image: “Person standing near ocean wave in Porto Covo, Portugal” by photographer Alvesgaspar, 2013. CC4.0. Included with appreciation.

Celebrate and share World Oceans Day. A social media toolkit to help you and your community share the message is available here.

Brooke, K. Lusk. “Speedo Diplomacy – Deep Seabed Mining and Marine Preservation.” Pages 56 – 67.” Renewing the World: Casebook for Leadership in Water. ISBN: 979-8-9850359-5-7. https://renewingtheworld.com

Brooke, K. Lusk and Zoë G. Quinn. “Deep Seabed Mining.” 13 July 2023. https://blogs.umb.edu/buildingtheworld/2023/07/13/water-energy-deep-seabed-mining-part-2/

International Seabed Authority. https://isa.org.jm

Leape, J., et al., (2020) Technology, data and new models for sustainably managing ocean resources.” World Resources Institute Blue Paper. https://www.oceanpanel.org/blue-papers/technology-data-and-new-models-sustainably managing ocean resources

NASA. “Video of Ocean in celebration of Earth Day 50th anniversary,” 2020. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Earth_Day_2020_-_Gulf_Stream_ocean_current_pull_out_to_Earth_observing_fleet.webm

Stanford Center for Ocean Solutions. https://profiles.stanford.edu/59063

United Nations. “Oceans and Law of the Sea – United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).” 1982. https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreement/texts/unclos/UNCLOS-TOC.htm

United Nations. “Resolution to end plastic pollution.” 2 March 2022. UNEP/EA.5/.

World Wildlife Fund. “Future mineral demand can be met without deep seabed mining as innovative technology can cut mineral use by 58%.” 28 November 2022. https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?7087466/Future-mineral-demand-can-be-met-without-deep-seabed-mining-as-innovative-technology-can-cut-mineral-use-by-58

World Wildlife Fund. “Global Plastics Treaty.” https://wwf.panda.org/act/plastic_pollution_treaty/

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

May 3, 2024
by Building The World
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ENERGY: Maximizing Minerals, Part 2 – Nickel

Nickel is critical to the renewable energy revolution. Image: “Section of pure nickel accretion,” by Images of Elements, 2009. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.

It’s driving the electric vehicle and renewable energy revolution, but nickel has vexed miners and chemists since the earliest days. In fact, nickel got its name because of its difficult nature. Nickel – from German “Kupfernickel” or “Old Nick’s Copper.” Miners who discovered nickel thought it was copper but were never able to extract copper from it. They named it after their term for the devil: “Old Nick.” In a side note, nickel’s etymology also gives us a favorite bread: “Pumpernickel,” perhaps because the devil enjoyed this dark loaf.

“Old Nick – the Devil” by Florian Rokita, 1936. From National Gallery of Art, acquisition 1943.8.16361, public domain. Included with appreciation.

.Nickel is valuable for its ferromagnetic properties: it is one of four with such powers. The others are cobalt, gadolinium, and iron. Over 60% of world nickel production makes its way to becoming stainless steel.

Nickel is used in making stainless steel. Image: Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe & Tube” by photographer Jatinsanghvi. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.

When such steel is no longer serviceable, it can be scrapped and recycled, turning the nickel back into use for more stainless steel, or – increasingly – batteries including nickel-cadmium or NiCad batteries.

Nickel is used in rechargeable batteries. Image: “NiCad batteries” by photography Boffy. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.

Presently, only 4% of the world’s nickel is used in rechargeable batteries, but with electric vehicles that market is growing, accelerating demand. Another developing use for nickel – wind turbine blades, where nickel is used as a superalloy.

Swiss coin made of 100% nickel. “5 scheizer Franken hinten” by photographer Manuel Anastácio, 2000. Public Domain by Article 5 of Swiss Copyright Act. Included with appreciation.

Nickel was at one time so abundant that in 1881, a coin in Swiss currency was made from pure nickel. In the United States, the coin called the “nickel” was introduced in 1857, but it was made with nickel alloyed with copper.

Jefferson Nickel, designed by sculptor Felix Schlag (1892-1974) who was paid $1,000 for the work, was made of only part nickel, alloyed with copper. Image: U.S. Historical Library, 1938. Public Domain: included with appreciation.

Despite its name as an American coin (the origin of the term is actually German), there is not much nickel found in the United States, although there is a mine in Riddle, Oregon that produced 15,000 tons (in 1996). That same year, Russian nickel mines yielded 230,000 tons, followed by Canada (183,000 tons), Australia (113,000 tons), and Indonesia (90,000 tons).Trading as a commodity, nickel’s pricing per ton ranged from 15,614 to 25, 076 in 2024. Metals like nickel are traded on the London Metal Exchange (LME).

Nickel is traded on the London Metal Exchange (LME). Image by photographer Kreepin Deth, 2009. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.

Like cobalt, nickel can be found in the deep seabed. In fact, exchange prices – like those on the London Metal Exchange – for nickel and cobalt, are influenced by estimates of deposits located in the seabed. In particular, cobalt and nickel are inter-related, often found together. On land, their mining is known, although not often enough followed by recycling and re-use. Under leagues of water, the process is not tested, and is also contested.

Nickel and cobalt are both targeted for deep seabed mining: contracts are soon to be defined. You can vote your opinion here. Image: “Deep seabed mining schematic” by G. Mannearts. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.

Another place nickel may be found is in the sky. Asteroids, especially those categorized as M-type or M-class, contain iron and nickel. But the search will be long: only 8% of asteroids, like Lutetia (see in image below) are M-type.

M-Type asteroids like Lutetia may contain nickel. Image: NASA/JPL-CalTech/JAXA/ESA, 2011. Creative Commons0 1.0, public domain. Included with appreciation.

Cobalt, nickel, and other minerals and metals that are critical for use in renewable energy are recyclable and reusable. Yet, the International Seabed Authority is reviewing contracts for nickel mining. Asteroid mining companies are also in the race. But nickel recycling may be a better bet and more certain investment. Nickel recycling has been expensive and difficult, requiring high heat and releasing toxic fumes. In former times, it may have seemed easier to obtain primary nickel (mined) than to pay for secondary nickel (recycled). Tax credits and rebates could help.

Nickel is 100% recyclable. Image: “Reduce, Reuse, Recycle.” by photographer Nadine3013. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.

But innovation-leading companies including Aqua Metals in Reno, Nevada, USA, and ABTC, as well as the Nevada Center for Applied Research (NCAR) at the University of Nevada, Reno and Greentown Labs, may change the way we use – and reuse – nickel. Presently 68% of all nickel already mined is recycled, but 17% is still dumped in landfills. Will the recent Declaration of Metals Industry Recycling Principles help to make mineral and metal recycling the industry standard?

Pure nickel by photographer Jurii, 2009. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.

While fossil fuels are used up when combusted (leaving greenhouse gases), minerals and metals are not depleted because they only conduct and store energy. Minerals and metals can be recycled and reused. Have a nickel in your pocket? Be the change.

Aqua Metals. https://aquametals.com

Brooke, K. Lusk. “Maximizing Minerals, Part 1, Cobalt.” https://blogs.umb.edu/buildingtheworld/2024/04/17/energy-water-maximizing-minerals/

Liberman, Anatoly. “Multifarious Devils: Pumpernickel, Nickel, and Old Nick,” 12 June 2013. Oxford University Press Blog. https://blog.oup.com/2013/06/pumpernickel-etymology-word-origin/

Nevada Center for Applied Research, University of Nevada, Reno. https://unr.edu/ncar

Nickel Institute. “Nickel.” https://nickelinstitute.org

United States Geological Survey (USGS). Mineral Resources Program. https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2011/3081/pdf/fs2011-3081.pdf

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

April 17, 2024
by Building The World
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ENERGY/WATER: Maximizing Minerals

Cobalt is essential for supporting renewable energy. Land-based cobalt mining is difficult, and sea-based is dangerous. Cobalt is 100% recyclable and reusable. How can we maximize minerals? Image: “Cobalt Mineral” by Bhavss1214. Creative Commons 4.0 Included with appreciation.

International Energy Agency predicts 500% increase in demand for minerals like cobalt by 2050. Cobalt is generally associated with mining, and more than half of land-based global cobalt reserves are in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The Kamoto mine in Katanga and the Metalkol RTE run by Eurasian Resources Group (ERG) are noteworthy; ERG joined the Responsible Minerals Assurance Process as part of the Responsible Minerals Initiative that prohibits certain labor practices in the DRC mining industry. But do we need a Responsible Minerals Initiative for the sea?

Land-based mines can inflict environmental damage and scars: what would ocean mining do? “Kalgoorlie: “The Big Pit” by Brian Voon Yee Yap, 2005. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.

Land-based mining is running out of minerals like cobalt. So, attention is now turning to the deep seabed, especially the mineral-rich Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ). To get an idea of the size of the CCZ, it is as wide as the continental United States, and stretches across the Pacific from Mexico to Hawaii. Here may be found polymetallic nodules containing manganese, sulfide deposits, and ferromanganese crusts with cobalt, manganese, nickel, titanium – even gold. The gold alone is worth $150 trillion. Polymetallic nodules in the deep seabed contain more key metals than the entire world’s land-based reserves.

“Polymetallic nodules on the seabed of CCZ” by Rov Kiel 6000, Geomar Bilddatenbank, 2015. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.

Some mineral deposits lie within national exclusive economic zones (EEZ) of coastal countries who have rights to their waters (and seabed minerals) within 200 nautical miles/230 land miles (370 km). Everything beyond belongs to everyone, even landlocked countries. This is the blue commons. It is related to the diplomatic peace principle of the Suez Canal – “open to all nations in times of war and peace.” The principle was first defined by Hugo Grotius (1583-1645) in the Latin phrase mare liberum (sea + free).

Can we find peace in the blue commons? “Mare Liberum” by Hugo Grotius, 1609. This image is from the archives of the Peace Palace, The Hague, Netherlands. Creative Commons0. 1.0, public domain. Included with appreciation.

The deep seabed is governed by the International Seabed Authority (ISA), a United Nations agency authorized as part of the Law of the Sea. Any signatory nation of the Law of the Sea may apply for a contract authorizing exploration of the seabed. After a number of exploration years, that country may apply to move towards exploitation – mining. Private partners are allowed, so some very small countries like Nauru have thus exercised their rights with some very big partners like The Metals Company.

Where is Nauru? Image: “Nauru on the globe” by graphic artist TUBS. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.

But there is more in the deep sea than minerals. Research ship James Cook just completed a study of marine species in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone. As many as 5,000 never-yet-named species may be living in the CCZ. Some of species thrive in symbiotic exchange with polymetallic nodules. It takes millions of years to build a polymetallic nodule of just 8 inches (20 centimeters). Imagine the disruption and environmental damage if an autonomous robotic bulldozer were to rake up the nodules. And, while mineral mining on land can result in accidents and environmental damage, imagine what that would look like undersea – using explosives and heavy machinery. Will the UN Convention on Biological Diversity protect the CCZ?

“Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ)” by NOAA, 2011. Public Domain. Included with appreciation.

Some believe mining deep seabed minerals is the only way we can get to a fully renewable energy future; other science and technology experts state we can optimize present use of metals and minerals by more than 50%, and not need to invade the seabed. And, it is critical to note that the minerals like cobalt, lithium, and nickel – essential for renewable energy conductivity and storage – are recyclable and reusable.

Cobalt, Lithium, and Nickel are recyclable and reusable. We can do more – before we do more damage. How can you help to maximize minerals? Image: “Universal Recycling Symbol” Public Domain. Included with appreciation.

ISA is nearing approval of deep seabed mining contracts for exploitation. Environmental advocates like Sir David Attenborough, Dr. Sylvia Earle, and Lewis Pugh have joined hundreds of scientists who recommend a moratorium on decisions to advance deep seabed mining. The UK-based James Cook voyage is part of the Seabed Mining and Resilience to Experimental Impact (SMARTEX). If you would like to convey your opinions and recommendations, you may contact the ISA here. Other options are to communicate with SMARTEX here.

Marine life in the CCZ needs your vote. Image: “Opisthoteuthis agassizii” by NOAA, 2019. Creative Commons 2.0. Included with appreciation.

BBC and Natural History Museum. “New Life Forms Discovered in CCZ.” VIDEO. https://www.bbc.com/reel/video/p0fsyh1g/the-alien-lifeforms-discovered-in-the-deep-ocean

Bhujbal, Prajakta. “10 minerals that can be recycled.” 5 February 2022. Recycling. https://blog.mywastesolution.com/10-minerals-that-can-be-recycled/

Brooke, K. Lusk. “Speedo Diplomacy: Deep Sea Mining and Marine Protected Areas,” pages 55-66, Renewing the World: Casebook for Leadership in Water. 2024. ISBN: 979-8-9850359-5-7. Available on Amazon and at https://renewingtheworld.com

Hunt, Katie. “Deep-sea expedition captures stunning images of creatures in Pacific mining zone.” 3 April 2024. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2024/04/02/world/new-species-pacific-deep-sea-mining-zone-scn?cid-ios.app

Earle, Sylvia. Mission Blue/The Sylvia Earle Alliance. https://missionblue.org

Hein, James R. and Kira Miel, USGS. Pacific Coastal and Marine Science Center. “Deep-ocean polymetallic nodules and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts in the global ocean: New sources for critical metals.” 21 April 2022. http://www.usgs.gov/publications/deep-ocean-polymetallic-noduules-and-cobalt-rich-ferromanganese-crusts-global-ocean-new

International Seabed Authority (ISA) https://www.isa.org.jm

Lewis Pugh Foundation. https://lewispughfoundation.org

Miller, K.A., et al., “Challenging the need for deep seabed mining from the perspective of metal demand, biodiversity, ecosystems services, and benefit sharing.” Frontiers, Marine Ecosystem Ecology, Volume 8 – 2021. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2021.706161

Ostrum, Elinor. Governing the Commons. ISBN: 97800-521-40599-7

The Metals Company. https://metals.co

MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology). “Deep Seabed Mining” VIDEO https://youtu.be/Lwq1j3nOODA?si=ZJkqNLmcNcsGicwT

Responsible Minerals Initiative (RMI). https://www.responsiblemineralsinitiative.org

SMARTEX. https://smartexccz.org

United Nations. “United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.” https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/unclos_3.pdf

United Nations. “Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.” Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, CBD/COP/DEC/15/4, 19 December 2022. https://www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop-15/cop-15-dec-04-en.pdf

Vox. “The race to mine the bottom of the ocean.” 2023. VOX https://youtu.be/pf1GvrUqeIA?si=CXneRsA77m4_f

Whittaker, Bill, et al., “National security leaders worry about U.S. failure to ratify Law of the Sea treaty.” 24 March 2024. CBS News. Includes VIDEO. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/national-security-economic-concerns-us-law-of-the-sea-treaty-60-minutes/

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

April 3, 2024
by Building The World
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ENERGY: Pipe Dream or Nightmare?

Fossil fuels like oil and gas are carried around the world by pipelines. Image: “Vortex street animation gif” by Cesareo de La Rosa Siqueira, 2006. Dedicated to the public domain, Creative Commons0 1.0, by the designer and included with appreciation.

Pipelines carry energy in a distribution system that is one of the most complex in the history of civilization. But the energy pipeline had humble beginnings. In 1821, William Hart of Fredonia, New York, saw something bubbling on the surface of Canadaway Creek. He ran home, grabbed his wife’s washtub, placed it over the bubbling area, drilled a small hole in the tub, stuck a barrel from an old gun (disconnected) and let the gas rise up. He’d seen kids playing around with the bubbles and lighting them on fire. So, when the gas bubbled out of his make-shift tube, he lit it: it burned.

William Hart discovered natural gas bubbling up from Canadaway Creek. He dug nearby and fashioned what may be one of the first energy pipelines. Image: “Canadaway Creek in New York” by photographer Schetm, 2022. This image is dedicated to the public domain, Creative Commons0 1.0. It is included with appreciation.

Realizing that this substance was a kind of fuel, Hart dug nearby, rewarded by a modest flow. Looking around for a few hollow logs that he could bind with rags and tar, Hart built a primitive pipeline and sold the energy source to a local tavern, perhaps giving new meaning to the bar quip “fire water.”

Image: “HDPE Pipeline in Australia” by photographer GordonJ86, 2013. This image is licensed under Creative Commons 4.0. It is included with appreciation.

Globally, there are so many energy pipelines that, if laid end to end, they could circle the globe 30 times. In the United States, there may be over 190,000 miles (approximately 305,000 kilometers) carrying crude oil from field to refinery to terminal. There are even more natural gas pipelines: 2.4 million miles (3.8 million kilometers). With all that volatile fuel coursing night and day, what could go wrong?

Image: “Pipeline Leak” photograph by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1972. Image is from National Archives NWDNS-412-DA-3515. Public Domain and included with appreciation.

Fatigue can wear us all down: even more so for pipelines that never get to sleep or take a vacation. In April 2023, Canada’s TC Energy spilled 14,000 barrels of oil in Kansas, USA, because of a fatigue crack that began as a construction imperfection and gradually worsened until it spilled. As a result, the whole pipeline, normally conveying 622,000 barrels-per-day, shut down for three weeks. Mill Creek in Kansas suffered longer.

Nigeria suffered over 600 pipeline leaks in 2020. Image: “Nigeria as seen from space” by NASA, 2015. This image is licensed under Creative Commons 3.0 and is included with appreciation.

Unfortunately, pipeline leaks are not unusual. Nigeria suffered over 600 pipeline leaks in 2020. Every leak is deadly to wildlife, harmful to land and water, and costly. In four years (2015-2019), energy pipeline failures cost over $1 billion in property damage. What’s the remedy? While fossil fuel pipelines are still in use, detection and repair remain critical: half of the failures are due to corrosion.

Smart pigs are robotic devices traveling pipelines to detect cracks or leaks. Image: “Ancient drawing by unknown artist.” This fascinating image is in the public domain and included with appreciation.

Enter the “smart pig.” Invented in 1961 by Shell Development, this early form of mobile AI robotic devices launched commercially three years later by Tuboscope. How did “smart pigs” get their whimsical name? When first sent on a test mission, gears on the devices made a squealing sound that sounded like baby pigs. It is known that pigs are intelligent, and these devices certainly were, and are, smart.

Trans-Alaska Pipeline used smart pigs. Image: “Trans-Alaska Pipeline International” is licensed under Creative Commons 2.5 and is included with appreciation.

When Canada and the United States built the Trans-Alaska Pipeline, smart pigs were inserted into the infrastructure to measure flow and detect problems. Magnetic flux tools track metal loss: ultrasonic tools measure pipe wall thickness and look for cracks. Smart pigs enter via a “pig launcher” that then closes to let the pipe’s normal pressure carry it along, measuring and checking for problems, before arriving at a receiving station where it can be retrieved for data download. Pigs are not an afterthought to be deployed upon presentation of a problem: pipelines must be built to accommodate pigs before the energy system begins operation.

Line 5 affects the Chippewa, other Tribal nations who hold sacred the environment the pipeline traverses. Will the Alliance for Tribal Clean Energy guide the way? The U.S. States of Michigan and Wisconsin are also affected, and the lawsuits also Canada’s Enbridge. Image: “Flag of the Sokaogon Chippewa” by graphic designer Xasartha, 2014. Creative Commons 3.0, and included with appreciation.

Even when pipelines do not have technical problems, they cause legal problems. Transboundary issues are common: by definition, pipelines go the distance. For example, in the United States, “Line 5” traverses the lake bed of the Straits of Mackinac, a water passage connecting Lake Michigan and Lake Huron. Michigan, Wisconsin, and more than 20 Tribal Nations are affected. And then there’s Canada, where Enbridge, pipeline owner, receives 540,000 barrels of crude oil and natural (should we change the name to “methane gas?”) gas. The Tribal Nations raised concern bout their environment. The Wisconsin Chippewa filed a suit challenging the trespass on their land. Michigan opened a law suit concerning the section of Line 5 that traverses the Straits. There is now a judgement requiring Enbridge to reroute the pipeline and pay a $5 million fine (an appeal is in progress). Claiming Canadian rights granted by a 1977 treaty, Enbridge countered with an appeal and a proposal: they want to invade the Strait even more by building a tunnel made of concrete below the lake bed. While a pipeline may be difficult to remove, even more so a concrete tunnel.

How can we bridge a just transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy? Image: “Nénuphars et Pont japonais,” by Claude Monet 1899. This image is in the public domain and included with appreciation.

As we phase out coal, the world may continue to taper off oil and then, gas. In that transition, there are many issues of justice, environment, resource management, and transition strategy. Some energy advisors advocate keeping at least some fossil energy options available, as a bridge. Then, if a renewable energy source failed, and back-up energy storage also failed, we could “open the tap.” As Professor Emily Grubert warned, during a presentation at the Harvard Kennedy School in April 2024, in order to keep a system reliable, it has to be run periodically even when not needed. And, while we have tested the maximum flow volume for energy pipelines, have we yet tested the minimum? What is the right way to balance transition to renewable technology while still making sure there is backup? Phasing out fossil fuels may need more planning.

What can we do with all those pipelines? Image: “Animation of a capacitor using flow analogy in a pipe” by KDS4444, 2014. This image is licensed under Creative Commons 4.0, and included with appreciation.

As we free transition from fossil fuel sources, what will we do with all those pipelines: above ground, buried beneath, and those snaking lake and sea floor? Do you have ideas for reusing or repurposing pipeline infrastructure?

Alliance for Tribal Clean Energy. https://tribalcleanenergy.org

Baker, Michael Jr. Inc. and Raymond R. Fessler. “Pipeline Corrosion,” November 2009. Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, Office of Pipeline Safety, U.S. Department of Transportation. https://www.phmsa.dot.gov/sites/phmsa.dot.gov/files/docs/technical-resources/pipeline/gas-transmission-integrity-management/65341/finalreportpipelinecorrosion.pdf

Davidson, Frank P. and K. Lusk Brooke. “Trans-Alaska Pipeline,” Building the World, Volume Two, pages 681 – 709. Greenwood: 2006. ISBN: 0313333742. Note: contains the original contract for the pipeline.

Grubert, Emily. “Planning the Mid-transition for Just and Sustainable Decarbonization.” 1 April 2024. Harvard Kennedy School. Please see recording on Belfer Center YouTube.

Grubert, E and S. Hastings-Simon. 2022. “Designing the mid-transition: A review of medium-term challenges for coordinated decarbonization in the United States. WIRE’s Climate Change. https://wires.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/wcc.768

Halleck, Rebecca and Dionne Searcey. “A Great Lakes Pipeline Tangles Politics in Two Battleground States.” 27 March 2024. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/27/climate/line-5-pipeline-michigan-wisconsin-swing-stage.html

Hussein, Mohammed. “Mapping the world’s oil and gas pipelines.” 16 December 2021. Al Jazerra. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/16/mapping-world-oil-gas-pipelines-interactive

Lacroix, Karine, et al., “Should it be called ‘natural gas’ or ‘methane’?” 1 December 2020. Climate Communication, Yale University. https://climatecommunication.yale.edu/publications/should-it-be-called-natural-gas-or-methane/

Lindner, Jannik. “Pipeline leak statistics.” 20 December 2023. https://gitnux.org/pipeline-leak-statistics/

Tuboscope. https://www.nov.com/about/our-business-units/tuboscope

Williams, Nia. “TC Energy says Keystone oil spill caused by fatigue crack,” 21 April 2023. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/tc-energy-receives-findings-root-cause-keystone-pipeline-oil-spill-2023-04-21/

U.S. Congress and Government of Canada. “Agreement Concerning Transit Pipelines,” 1977. https://www.congress.gov/treaty-document/95th-congress/6?s=1&r=22

U.S. Department of Transportation, Pipeline & Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, “Fact sheet: Inspections (smart pigs).” https://primis.phmsa.dot.gov/comm/factsheets/fssmartpig.htm

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

March 27, 2024
by Building The World
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TRANSPORT: Bridges

Baltimore’s Francis Scott Key Bridge disaster is a tragedy. You can help here and here. Image: ‘Cable stayed suspension bridge” by Wikideas1, 2024. Pubic Domain CC0 1.0. Included with appreciation to the artist and support for Baltimore’s families who have suffered loss.

The tragedy of the Francis Scott Key Bridge brings deep sorrow for those lost and injured, as the search for those still missing continued after the accident. The Baltimore bridge was slammed by cargo vessel Dali after the 984 foot (299 meters) ship lost power and could not avoid collision. A MayDay call was sent, but it was too late. Citizens in the area rushed to help, forming a human blockade to prevent oncoming traffic from entering the bridge access.

“Francis Scott Key Bridge and Cargo Ship Dali” tragic accident photograph by NTSBgov, March 2024. This image is in the public domain.

While using waterways for transport is an ancient idea, and has recently been championed by European transport experts as more environmentally beneficial, the size of cargo ships must be considered. Europe has 23,000 miles (37,014 kilometers) of waterways: using canals and rivers for cargo transport could reduce emissions from trucks. Presently, 6.5 million trucks deliver goods across Europe, while rail carries just 5% and rivers 2%. European port operator Haropa proposed rivers and canals as a means of cargo delivery. But when European canals, as well the American Erie Canal were built, and the bridges that span these waterways, cargo vessels carrying goods were smaller.

The Ever Given cargo ship, stuck in the Suez Canal in 2021, was so large it could be seen from the International Space Station. Photo: NASA/ISS 27 March 2021. Public Domain.

Now, the size of the average cargo ship is considerably larger. Ships that have problems can cause major trouble, like the container ship Ever Given that got stuck in the Suez Canal. In the first three months of 2024, cargo ships have hit bridges in Argentina, China, and the United States. Some would question if waterways, and bridges, are ready for the size of cargo vessels now used. The Port of Baltimore is the 11th largest in the United States. It is an important transport center, but what are the limits of the ships that traverse its waters? What safety measures need to be in place in the world’s ports? Coastal cities around the world are some of the most important ports. Baltimore is one; Boston is another. Will sea level rise threaten the safety of ports?

Zakim Bridge in Boston, Massachusetts, USA, completed in 2002, named to honor Leonard P. Zakim. It is the largest asymmetrical cable-stayed bridge in the world. Photograph by Eric Vance, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2019. Public Domain Creative Cpmmons0 1.0. Included with appreciation.

While the Francis Scott Key bridge was not structurally deficient (although there has been comment on its structural redundancy, a term for extra support that can compensate for damage preventing collapse, as well as pier protection) and was certified as completely up-to-code, too many of our spans are in need of strengthening. Bridges last about 50 years before showing problems. The age of the average bridge in the United States is 42. A study by the American Road and Transport Builders Association (ARTBA) revealed that 36% of U.S. bridges – 222,000 – are in need of repair. The total cost? $319 billion. How much is currently allocated? $3.2 billion.

Roman aqueducts and bridges utilized the famous Roman Arch. Image: “Roman Aqueduct in Tarragona, Spain” by Cruccone. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.

Bridges were once, and remain, so important to city planning and security that in ancient Rome, only the Pope and a small cadre of bishops had the right to authorize a bridge. From that historic beginning, we get our word “pontiff” (Latin “pontifex” from “pons” (bridge) + “facere” (to do or make). Only the Pontiff of Rome could issue a bridge permit. In olden days of China, there was a bridge over which only the Emperor could walk.

“London Bridge” by Claes Van Visscher, 1616. This image, in the public domain, was offered by Mahagaja. It is included with appreciation.

Many transport historians might mark stages of civilization by connections formed via bridges. London Bridge changed the commerce of the city. Its span was the location of what may be one of the first shopping malls: retail stalls built along the structure paid rent that helped support bridge repairs. London Bridge is significant, too, for what was perhaps the first worker’s compensation plan, according to King John’s document of authorization to the Lord Mayor of London.

“Brooklyn Bridge, originally the Great East River Suspension Bridge” by Currier and Ives, 1883. Public Domain. Included with appreciation.

Bridges can raise the spirit: the Brooklyn Bridge has inspired more poetry than any other bridge in history. Hart Crane’s “To Brooklyn Bridge,“offers reflections upon the span. The bridge is also connected to philosophy: it began in the mind of John Roebling who contemplated teachings of his professor at the Royal Polytechnic in Berlin: the philosopher Hegel. It was one of Hegel’s theories that gave Roebling the idea: it came to him in a flash during a hike in Bamberg. He sat down on a rock and sketched what would become the Brooklyn Bridge.

“Hammersmith Bridge” by photographer Alex Muller, 2008. This image is licensed by Creative Commons 3.0. It is included with appreciation to Alex Mulller.

British spans were recently studied: 17 were found to be in danger of collapse and 37 were on the watch list. The Hammersmith Bridge across the Thames River showed cracks in the 100+ year-old structure, causing the banning of vehicles since 2019.

“Morandi Bridge” by photographer Davide Papalini, 2010. This image is licensed under Creative Commons 3.0. It is included with appreciation to Davide Papalini.

European Union bridges tend to be on the older side: many were built as part of the Marshall Plan, just after World War II in the mid 1940s. Germany’s Leverkusen Bridge developed concrete cracks and was closed to heavy vehicles in 2012. In 2018, Italy’s Morandi Bridge connecting Genoa to France collapsed in a drenching rain storm. Built with only one pair of cable stays to support each section, vulnerability may have been inherent in the design.

Will bridges, many built in earlier times for different conditions, withstand the stronger storms of climate change? Britain’s Tay Rail Bridge washed out and collapsed in a strong storm in 1879. Image: Tay Bridge Catastrophe, 1879. Image origin: public domain, author unknown.

Climate change and attendant extreme weather, including intense winds and storms creating waves and floods, may affect bridges. In areas with drought subject to wildfire, bridges might need protection in parts of the span that may contain fiberoptic cable. Concrete may seem strong, but it cracks at 500 degrees Fahrenheit and melts at 2,500 degrees. Innovations like “First Line Fire Blankets” can be applied to bridges, power cables, and even gas pipelines. Make of E-glass fiber that resists thermal conductivity, “fire blankets” can be retrofitted to protect critical infrastructure.

China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) is building many new bridges. Are there opportunities for innovation that can respond to climate change? The Mohammed VI Bridge, Morocco, was a BRI project. Image courtesy of Ministry of Equipment and Transport, Morocco, 2016. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.

Older bridges may be supported by vigilance and retrofitting. Newer construction has opportunities for innovation. China’s Belt and Road Initiative, connecting Asia all the way to Africa and Europe, may tally $8 trillion. Financed in part by loans to countries that agree to the building of bridges, ports, roads, railways, China’s debts-owed increased 20% since 2013 when the project launched. More than 68 countries have signed on to participate in the project that will involve 65% of the world’s entire population. Bridges in the plan include the China-Maldives Friendship Bridge, Maputo Bay Bridges in Mozambique, Mohammed VI Bridge in Morocco, and the Peljesac Bridge in Croatia. Decisions made about bridge design, strength, maintenance, and technology may determine the future of the much of the world’s connectivity over water, and also over terrain needing aerial bypass. What are some ways bridges can be improved?

A view of Baltimore’s Key Bridge in 2011 by photographer Sarnold17. This image is licensed in Creative Commons 3.0.

Meanwhile, Baltimore mourns. If you would like to help those affected, you may help here and here.

ARTBA. “2023 Bridge Report: 222,000 U.S. Bridges Need Major Repairs.” 18 August 2023. https://www.artba.org/news/artba-2023-bridge-report-222000-u-s-bridges-need-major-repairs/

Bridge Masters, Inc (BMI). “First Line Fire Blankets: Superior Bridge Utility Protection.” 15 September 2017. https://bridgemastersinc.com/first-line-fire-blankets-superior-under-bridge-utility-protection/

Brooke, K. Lusk. “Brooklyn Bridge.” Building the World Blog. https://blogs.umb.edu/buildingtheworld/bridges/1480-2/

Brooke, K. Lusk. “TRANSPORT: Suez Canal.” 31 March 2021. Building the World Blog. https://blogs.umb.edu/buildingtheworld/2021/03/31/transport-suez-canal/

Jester, Julia. et al., “At least 6 people unaccounted for after cargo ship crash levels Baltimore bridge.” 26 March 2024. NBC News. https://www.mbcnews.com/news/us-news-maryland-bridge-collapse-francis-scott-key-bridge-boat-baltimore-rcna145047

McBridge, James, et al., “China’s Massive Belt and Road Initiative.” 2 February 2023. Council on Foreign Relations. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/chinas-massive-belt-and-road-initiative

Topham, Gwyn. “More than 3,200 UK bridges need repair, local authorities say.” The Guardian. 25 March 2022. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/25/more-than-3200-uk-bridges-need-repair-local-authorities-say

Yeung, Jessie. “Three ships have hit bridges in different countries – in just three months. Should we be worried?” 27 March 2024. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2024/03/27/world/bridge-accident-dangers-baltimore-collapse-intl-hnk?cid=ios_app

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U