Passage of the sun determines day, night, and time. Trains gave us time zones. Image: “Sun Animation” by Sfls4309pks and Trekky0623/The Flat Earth Society. Creative Commons 4.0.
As the sun rises and sets, the resulting diurnal rhythm is what we call time. Before the world became connected through high speed transport, local towns set their own clocks. Noon was determined by the high point of sun in the sky: so, noon in Boston might be a bit different from noon in Baltimore, and certainly different from noon in Boise. There were 144 varied “time zones” in North America in the 1880s.
US Transcontinental Railroad used little papers called “flimsies” to alert track workers of coming trains. Time zones soon followed. Image: Transcontinental workers by photographer Andrew Russell, 1869. Public Domain.
Trains changed the world in many ways including time. When the US built the Transcontinental Railroad, collisions on tracks were avoided by runners sent ahead with reports of trains arriving. Using lightweight paper, warnings were called “flimsies” – not too reassuring when the safety of passengers was at stake.
Early rail tracks were laid to haul coal from mines. Image: “Mine Cart” by photographer LoKiLeCh from Berlin Technikmuseum Holzbahn. 2010. Creative Commons 3.0
British rail, emerging from wooden (and then iron) tracks making it easier to convey coal from mines to waiting barges, may have begun the rail era, but it took until 1847 for British rail companies to adopt one time schema across the rail system. It was called “Railway Time.”
Canadian Pacific Railway built snow tunnels and snow galleries (pictured above) to keep working through winter. Canadian Pacific Surveyor Sanford Fleming introduced the idea of time zones, and changed the world. Image: “Snow Gallery at Crested Peak,” by Carleton Watkins, 1868. Public Domain.
Canadian rail surveyor Sanford Fleming, who worked on the development of the Canadian Pacific Railway, that brought the idea of time zones to the world. Fleming proposed four time zones for North America: Eastern, Central, Mountain, and Pacific. The idea changed a continent and then the world.
Concept of a prime meridian predates the 18 November 1883 International Prime Meridian Conference that chose Greenwich as the center of the time cycle. Here, a 1595 illustration by Gerardus Mercator. Courtesy Library of Congress. Public Domain.
On 18 November 1883, Fleming’s system brought the world together for the International Prime Meridian Conference in Washington DC in one of the most important global agreements. Greenwich Meridian was chosen as the “zero” center of longitude, and set the sounding note upon which the harmony of world time became based. Can we agree upon climate goals and timeline, now?
“Analog Clock Animation” by Jahobr. Public Domain.
Noon, 18 November 1883 became known by a special name. Why? At noon that day, all rail stations set their clocks according to the new Prime Meridian system adopted. But because most town clocks and sundials at the stations may have already passed noon, or were about to based on the overhead sun, those systems also hit their mark. So, 18 November 1883 became known in history as the “Day of Two Noons.”
Swatch introduced Internet time – a day has 1000 beats and we all keep that beat at the same time. Image: Swatch Blancpain 0319 by photographer Rama. Creative Commons 2.0.
While the world still works on Fleming’s idea, modern communication systems – a form of transport – like the Internet sparked a new time concept. Swatch watch maker proposed each day be portioned by “beats” as the rhythm of time and perhaps a certain bow to musical time signatures. Internet time has 1000 beats: each lasts 1 minute and 26.4 seconds. Its central meridian was located in Swatch’s office in Biel, Switzerland. They called it BMT (Biel Mean Time). Going beyond Fleming’s view of the world, BMT or Internet time does not have zones: we’re all online simultaneously – on the same beat.
Doomsday Clock, as portrayed in the graphic novel “Watchmen.” Illustration by Kigsz, 2012. Creative Commons 3.0.
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) has lately been the new standard, coordinating time zones with the Earth’s rotation. International Atomic Time (TAI) combines the readings of 400 atomic clocks. Universal Time (UT1) is astronomical time based on the Earth’s rotation: it’s related to the International Meridian Conference’s system, and remains the standard. Another clock we all might watch carefully (see above) is the Doomsday Clock.
As the world meets in Baku for COP29, can we agree on goals? It’s about time. Image: “Baku at noon with vertical shadows indicating precise time of noon,” by Alexey Bogolyubov, 1861. Public Domain.
If the world can agree on time zones, can we hope that we will now find a way to agree upon climate goals and justice? It’s about time.
Davidson, Frank P. and K. Lusk Brooke. “The Transcontinental Railroad,” pages 205-218; and “The Canadian Pacific Railway,” pages 253-287. Building the World. Greenwood, 2006.
New York Times. “Turning Back the Hands: A Quiet Change to the Standard Time.” 18 November 1883. Digital reproduction of text: http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5748
The only building left standing in Hiroshima, Japan, after 6 August 1945 is now a peace memorial. “Genbaku Dome” photographed by Oilstreet, Creative Commons 2.5.
This week marks the 79th year since the tragedy of nuclear warfare. Japan, only country to have experienced the effects of nuclear warfare, has always pledged non-participation in nuclear arms development. While the US has traditionally included Japan and South Korea in its protection, recent geopolitics in the area (and elsewhere) may encourage self-protection. With fear rising in Seoul due to its nuclear northern neighbor, 71 per cent of South Koreans surveyed expressed belief that self-protection may be necessary.
Tragic bombing of Japan in August 1945. Left image: Hiroshima (6 August 1945) by George P. Caron. Right image: Nagasaki (9 August 1945) by Charles Levy. Image from U.S. Department of Energy. Public Domain.
Japan may be less inclined. There are still 106,823 survivors who are a testament to the tragedy of August 1945. And the present generation who experienced the 2011 Fukushima disaster have grown wary of nuclear danger: not just in war but in energy production. In the Fukushima tragedy, 47,000 people fled their homes, ocean water near the plant became contaminated, and 80 square miles (207 square kilometers) were declared uninhabitable. Loss and damage remediation cost: estimated at $660 billion (71 trillion Yen). Those who visit Fukushima, or the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum, may reflect upon past – and future- nuclear decisions.
Einstein stated the letter to FDR was his life’s biggest regret. Image: “Albert Einstein, 1947” by photographer Jack Oren Turner, 1947. Public Domain.
Einstein, whose letter to then-president Franklin D. Roosevelt led to the development of the Manhattan Project that resulted in the bombs, said it was his life’s biggest regret. Is it finally time for the world to join and support Hiroshima’s declaration, this week, that we must move from “ideal” to real action in nuclear disarmament. Governor Hidehiko Yuzaki of Hiroshima Prefecture noted that once a weapon is invented, likelihood of use becomes a problem that may never resolve. If you want to support nuclear disarmament, lift your voice here or here.
Wyoming is the location of TerraPower’s civil nuclear energy and electricity plant with a new, safer design: will it change nuclear decisions? Image: “John Moulton Barn at base of Grand Tetons, Wyoming” by photographer John Sullivan, 2004. Dedicated to the public domain.
But what about nuclear power as a non-carbon source of energy in a world seeking to stop carbon-caused climate change? Microsoft co-founder and philanthropist Bill Gates invested in TerraPower in 2008: in 2024, the company developed a new design for a power plant in Kemmerer, Wyoming, USA. Gates noted that former nuclear designs use water to cool the system (a problem in the Fukushima disaster), but the Wyoming project will use liquid sodium. The medium can withstand eight times more heat than water, and does not require pumping back into the system. It still uses uranium, however.
“Uranium electron shell diagram” by graphic designer Pumbaa80. Creative commons 2.0.
Uranium is radioactive in all its isotopes; U-235 is fissile, and is the basis for most of the world’s nuclear power stations. As a mineral, uranium decays into other, lighter, elements: but it takes time. The half-life of U-235: 704 million years. Storage of spent fuel continues to be an issue. The world’s biggest deposits of uranium are in Australia, Canada, and Kazakhstan: these countries therefore may influence world nuclear policies.
Not all countries have signed, and ratified, the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT). How can you help to advance support? Image: “CTBT Participation as of 2022” by graphic designer Allstar86. Creative Commons 3.0.
Even more influence comes from those who have not signed, or have resigned from, the global Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT). Russia pulled out; the US has signed but never ratified. India, North Korea, and Pakistan have not yet signed. While 187 nations have agreed, only 36 have ratified. In addition to the US, China, Egypt, Iran, and Israel have not yet ratified. If you live in a country that has not signed or ratified, your action and encouragement can make a difference.
France has the largest share of civil nuclear power for electricity generation. It is also home to ITER, site of development of fusion energy. Image: “Nuclear plants map of France,” by graphic designer Sting, 2006. Public Domain.
But as the Atomic Energy Act reminds us, nuclear power is an energy form with environmental (and medical) benefits. Advocates of nuclear power, including Gates, speak of its potential to help the world achieve a carbon-free, net-zero goal as we transition away from coal, gas, and oil. Many join Gates in supporting nuclear energy for a carbon-free world. Today, there are nuclear power plants supplying energy and electricity in over 50 countries. The US, France, China, Japan, Russia, South Korea, Canada, and Ukraine (in that order) are the top producers; France has the largest share of energy generation from nuclear. Germany, however, decided to phase out and decommission its nuclear energy infrastructure.
Global Zero is an international organization dedicated to a world without nuclear weapons. Image: “Global Zero” by Global Zero. Public Domain. Included with appreciation.
But even if new civil nuclear designs like that of TerraPower are safer operationally, are nuclear power plants still a danger as potential targets? Ukraine would say this is sadly true, as evidenced by recent threats to Zaporizhzhia. Bombing or otherwise exploding a civil nuclear facility built to generate electricity would result in two disasters: disabling energy infrastructure and triggering a radioactive explosion that would cause immediate casualties and lingering contamination. A database of nuclear terrorism is maintained by the Monterey Institute of International Studies, James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies Middlebury Institute of International Studies at Monterey, and the Center for International Security and Cooperation at Stanford University. Organizations like Global Zero offer ways to get involved. The United Nations Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, 7 July 2017, offers a vision.
In the next part, we’ll look at possibly safer forms of civil nuclear energy. Using uranium may be dangerous, but could small modular nuclear reactors (SMR) be less of a threat? And will the work of Jean-Louis Bobin and other physicists developing nuclear fusion independent of uranium change the field – and the world?
When learning that this week marks the 79th anniversary of the use of nuclear weapons in war, a student remarked: “By next year, the 80th, how can we reach complete nuclear disarmament?”
Image: “Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament,” by photographer Marshall Colman, 2010. Public Domain. Included with appreciation.
Take action here or here. This week, especially, honor peace.
Bobin, Jean-Louis. Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion. World Scientific: 2014. 978-9814590686
Davidson, Frank P. and K. Lusk Brooke. “The Manhattan Project,” Chapter 26. pages 477-514. Volume II. Building the World. Greenwood 2006. ISBN: 0-313-33374-2.
Holdren, John P. “Threats to Civil Nuclear-energy Facilities,” chapter, Science and Technology to Counter Terrorism: Proceedings of an Indo-U.S. Workshop. 2007. National Academies Press. https://nap.nationalacademicies.org/read/11848/chapter/8
International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN). Nobel Peace Prize 2017. “How to stop nuclear weapons.” https://www.icanw.org/take_action_now
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. “TerraPower, LLC, Submittal of the Construction Permit Application for the Natrium Reactor Plant, Kemmerer Power Station, Unit 1,” Accession number ML24088A059, 10 April 2024. https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML2408/ML24088A059.html
World Water Day 2024: Water and Peace. Image: “Peace Dove and Olive Branch at Flight.” by Nevit. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.
WATER: It is our natural shared element. Earth is 70% water. Our bodies are 68% water; plants as much as 90%. Water is one of our most important shared resources. Can what is shared be a passage to peace?
Civilization has advanced by sharing water. Image: “Xvolks Canal des Deux Mers (or Canal du Midi)” by Xvolks, 2005. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.
Throughout history, civilization advanced by sharing water. China’s Grand Canal carried water, and food, from the south to the northern capital. Italy’s Aqueducts brought fresh spring water from surrounding hills to the city of Rome. France joined the Atlantic to the Mediterranean via the Canal des Deux Mers. The Colorado River, water source for 40 million people, shares water with the United States, many original American tribal nations, and Mexico, while providing hydroelectric power. The Tennessee Valley Authority harnessed water to provide electricity with its guiding motto: “Power for All.” Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric is now building Snowy 2.0 that will re-use and recirculate water for pumped hydro energy. The Suez Canal has, in its founding firman, assurance that the waterway must be open to all nations in times of war and peace.
March 22, 2024 World Water Day: Water and Peace. Image: “Peace” by photographer Lindsay Ensing, 2011. Creative Commons 2.0. Included with appreciation.
This year, the United Nations, convener of World Water Day adopted in 1992, offers the theme of Water and Peace. How fortunate we are that water is a renewable resource, if its wise use is designed to follow its natural system dynamics. In our time of climate change, when drought may cause water scarcity, respecting and honoring ways to sustain, renew, and share water may inspire peace. How will you honor water and peace?
How will you help the world honor water and peace? Image: “The World of Water” by photographer Snap. Creative Commons 2.0. Included with appreciation,
Can macro infrastructure links like the Suez Canal offer a path to peace? Image: “Peace” by Yaw Kuma Ansu-Kyeremech, 2021. Creative commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.
Can macro infrastructure links offer a path to peace? Diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps had long dreamed of “piercing” the isthmus, and sought the concession from Mohammed Pasha al-Said, a childhood friend whom de Lesseps first met when living in Egypt with his father, French consul in Cairo. Accounts reveal the future pasha very much liked the breakfast cereal served in Ferdinand’s house, and the two became fast friends who both enjoyed horse riding. In fact, later as adults, they shared a dare to exhibit horse riding skills to jump a particularly high fence: the prize would be permission to build the Suez Canal. Land rights were spelled out, construction began: the route would link two entrances – one from the Mediterranean, the other from the Red Sea.
Ferdinand de Lesseps built the Suez Canal, and tried to later build the Panama Canal. “Caricature of Ferdinand de Lesseps by André Gil, 1867. Public Domain. Included with appreciation.
Ten years later, on 16 November, 1869, the Suez Canal opened with a marine parade of 65 ships from nations worldwide. Giuseppe Verdi composed Aida to honor the Suez Canal’s opening. In a quirk of irony, the costumes being prepared in Europe were delayed in shipping so the opera debuted the following year.
Giuseppe Verdi composed the opera Aida in honor of the opening of the Suez Canal. Image: “Poster for Aida, 1908, Hippodrome Opera.” U.S. Library of Congress, public domain. Included with appreciation.
Friendship and international understanding graced the project – in spirit and in letter of the law. Khedive Mohammed Pasha al-Said and Ferdinand de Lesseps wrote and signed the founding agreement that called, in article VI, for “tariffs of dues for passage …(which) shall be always equal for all nations, no particular advantage can ever be stipulated for the exclusive benefit of any one country.” That principle of open access to all was legalized in the international Convention of Constantinople of 1888 in article I “in time of war as in time of peace, the canal shall never be subjected to the exercise of the right of blockade.”
“Suez Canal as seen from International Space Station” – two examples of infrastructure as peace. Photo shows the southern terminus of the Suez Canal at the northern area of the Red Sea. Image: NASA, 2007. Public Domain.
In December 2023, several commercial vessels bound for the Mediterranean diverted from the Suez Canal route to avoid danger. Because the 120 mile (192 km) canal is the fastest sea route between Asia and Europe, it is the preferred passage. For example, a ship from the Mideast Gulf bound for Rotterdam, Netherlands would travel 6,436 nautical miles via the Suez Canal but 11,169 nautical miles taking the longer route around Africa. Since December, more ships have diverted. Portwatch, study group of Oxford University and the International Monetary Fund, reported Suez Canal traffic is lowest since 2021. Shipping rates, during the diversions, have tripled. Tesla idled a factory in Germany because shipping delays caused supply chain problems. But, more concerning to many is the issue that the Suez Canal was – and is – specifically a path to peace.
Can the Belt and Road Initiative’s many links be inspired to form a path to peace? Image: “One belt, one road” by Lommes. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.
The Suez Canal’s Firman and subsequent Convention specifically dedicate the route to be open to all nations equally in time of war as in time of peace. Major transport routes, like the Suez Canal, represent both trade passages and potential paths to peace. How will such dedications affect the future of the Suez Canal, and also developing links such as those in the Belt and Road Initiative? Can macro infrastructure links, like the Suez Canal, serve as a path to peace?
Ghaddar, Ahmad. “How attacks in the Red Sea impact shipping in the Suez Canal.” 19 December 2023. Reuters.
Davidson, F. P. and K. Lusk Brooke. “The Suez Canal,” Chapter 16, Building the World, Volume 1, pages 187 – 204 (includes original Firman). ISBN: 0313333734.
Egan, Matt. “Insurers shun many ships carrying goods through the Red Sea as attacks continue.” 17 January 2024. CNN.com. https://www.cnn.com/2024/01/17/business/red-sea-shipping-attacks
Portwatch. “Trade disruptions in the Red Sea.” 16 December 2023: updated 20 January 2024. https://portwatch.imf.org
Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U
“Many Hands,” by Sharon and Nikki McCutcheon, 2015. Dedicated by the photographers to the public domain. Included with appreciation.
During UN climate week, the U.S. announced creation of an “American Climate Corps” that will combine public service with training for environmentally beneficial professions and technologies. Ali Zaidi, White House point person, may lead the effort to recruit 20,000 young people for the inaugural year. Some Corps areas will also include age-diverse cohorts. Collaborators joining the training and development will feature experts from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA) and AmeriCorps, as well as departments of Agriculture, Energy, Interior, and Labor. If we need an energy revolution, this could be it.
“CCC camps in Michigan, USA” circa 1930s. Public Domain. Included with appreciation.
There are historic precedents. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt pulled American youth out of Depression-era joblessness by creating the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). While initially aimed at those suffering poverty. CCC expanded, through the creative leadership of Frank P. Davidson, to include Camp William James in Tunbridge, Vermont, welcoming college recruits.
Without dikes, the Netherlands would be flooded to this extent. Image by Jan Arksteijn, 2004. Dedicated by the graphic artist to the public domain, CC 0.1. Included with appreciation.
But the earliest organization of service work might be the Dike Armies of the medieval Netherlands. In 1319, this edict described the corps: “Ende alman sal ten menen werke comen op den dijc, daers hem ie Baeiliu, of die Dijcgrave vermaent” – “Everybody shall come to work at the dike on instruction of the bailiff or dike reeve.” It should be noted that today, with social media like Instagram, X, TikTok, calling up volunteer teams to respond to a climate disaster would have instant effectiveness.
Look at Earth from space. There are no lines on a map showing states or nations. Our planet is land surrounded by water. Climate is regional and global – so must be our response. “The Blue Marble” by NASA Apollo 17, enhanced by Degir6328. Public Domain. Included with appreciation.
The newly planned American Climate Corps might be the beginning of a new era of job and skills development to respond to climate change. But a broader vision could expand the scope. Climate change will not stop at national borders: San Diego in the USA and Tijuana in Mexico share the same coast and the same need for response to sea level rise. Vermont, site of CCC Camp William James, shared smoke from Canada’s recent wildfires. Look at Earth from space; you see not countries and nations, but land and water. Climate change must be addressed by regional, and global, response. The American Climate Corps could become a regional organization inviting Canada, Mexico, and the USA, together with the original Tribes of the Americas, to share language training, technology development, and regional capability to respond to climate change.
The new CCC can build wind turbines, delivering green electricity. It’s a fast-growing industry with great jobs. Image: “Dual Rotor Wind Turbine” by Deas1. Creative commons. Included with appreciation.
Those trained by the new Climate Corps can serve a dual role of training for climate-ready jobs, and also be ready to respond to climate disasters that affect the region. In the last decade, 85% of natural disasters like drought and fires, storms and floods, were attributed to, and intensified by, global warming. Climate change calls us to work together in ways that can strengthen education, technology, and shared vision through climate justice. As Climate Corps members build green energy technology and plant drought-resistant agricultural grains, perhaps they may also sow the seeds of peace.
Can we plant drought-resistant agriculture as a way to sow the seeds of peace? Image: Logo “Plant for the Planet,” 2015. Public Domain Fair Use. Included with appreciation.
J. Robert Oppenheimer. Portrait from student days in Göttingen, Germany. Image: Public Domain. Included with recognition.
Summer blockbuster movies are meant to entertain, but the film Oppenheimerpresents more than an opportunity for three hours in an air-conditioned theatre to escape the record-breaking summer heatwave. The film, about a scientist who for many is the face of the Manhattan Project, is a lesson in hindsight. And maybe a hope for future foresight.
Roosevelt and Churchill could have made a very different decision. Image: Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill, 18 January 1943. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Public Domain. Included with recognition.
There was a moment in time when, after learning from Albert Einstein and other scientists, that nuclear power as a new form of energy was not only possible but could also be used to destroy the world, a different decision could have been made. In the midst of a troubling war, American President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met. Churchill sent a team to work with the Americans. General Leslie Groves, military head of the Manhattan Project, selected J. Robert Oppenheimer as scientific director to develop nuclear energy – in the form of a weapon. This was only part of Einstein’s communication, but it was the first on which action was taken. The Manhattan Project was launched. But the key decision still had not been made.
Manhattan Project’s Trinity test of “Gadget” 16 July 1945. Image from USDE, public domain. Included with recognition.
Roosevelt worried about the decision. He considered informing a war enemy country, perhaps Japan, that there would be a bombing and that all citizens should be evacuated. Then, the bomb would have been dropped, demonstrating the horror and power, and the shock would be sufficient to stop the war. Why was this course of action not followed? After considering the decision, Roosevelt feared the bomb might indeed fall but not detonate, thereby leaving on the field of war a full-scale model to reverse-engineer, improve, and return fire against its creators. Tragically, the decision to move forward was taken by successor President Truman, and terrible injustice rained upon unsuspecting residents of Japan. Oppenheimer, who developed the bomb and witnessed its power when tested, quoted the Bhagavad Gita: “Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds.”
Tragic atomic bombing of Japan, 1945. Image: “Bombs detonating over Hiroshima (left) and Nagasaki (right),” by photographer Sergeant George R. Caron, 1945. Caron was the first person to see the bomb from the air upon detonation. A military officer on the mission, Caron also happened to be a photographer. Public Domain. Included with recognition.
While its purpose was military, the Manhattan Project also demonstrated that people can come together to work on something of great importance, coordinated across geography and through sectors of society, with remarkable speed and efficacy. Tragically, the Manhattan Project, and Oppenheimer’s team, achieved a level of terror and destruction never before seen. But it also developed a new form of energy. What are we to do with this, now?
In 1946, the Atomic Energy Act introduced guidelines for the safe and beneficial use of this potent new form of energy. In Section I, a, the Atomic Energy Act states “It is hereby declared to be the policy of the people of the United States that…the development and utilization of atomic energy shall…be directed toward improving the public welfare, increasing the standard of living, strengthening free competition in private enterprise, and promoting world peace.” The Peace Symbol, created by Gerald Holtom in 1958 by combining semaphore letters (Semaphore is signal system using visuals that can be read at a distance. In the 19th century, ships began to communicate via semaphore flags – it this system that Holtom used.) “N” and “D” to signal nuclear disarmament, remains an important and inspirational icon, reaching beyond the original meaning to a broader call to peace. But its source and heart developed from the very issue that the Oppenheimer film explores.
The Peace Symbol created by Gerald Holtom combines the semaphore letters “N” (Nuclear) and “D” (Disarmament). Image: Gerald Holtom. Public Domain. Included with appreciation.
What should the future of nuclear energy be? Oppenheimer’s last words on the subject remain controversial but include “the peacetime applications of atomic energy will have in them all that we think, and more.” The original atomic energy was achieved through fission – dangerous then and still troubling now. Small modular reactors (SMR) are bringing fission energy to a new and less dangerous scale. Reuse and recycling of nuclear waste is similarly changing energy practice. Many energy experts state that we may need nuclear power as a supplement to other forms of renewable energy like solar, wave, and wind. But it is also true that nuclear plants, even SMRs, are still vulnerable, as recent military history in Ukraine warns. Recently, fusion energy may soon offer a capability that could achieve the dual goals of carbon-free energy and world cooperation. Fusion energy advances in ITER in France and in the United States, among others, may produce options in the near future.
Nuclear power is a major energy source in France. Image: “Nuclear plants map of France” by Eric Gaba, based on NASA satellite data, public domain. Included with recognition,
Nuclear capability remains with us, but the stain of nuclear tragedy also remains, as the Oppenheimer movie reminds us. Oppenheimer is often called the “American Prometheus,” after the fire-stealing Greek Titan, whose brother was Epimetheus. Prometheus means “forethought;” Epimetheus means “hindsight.” What is your view of nuclear energy? How can we use what we know, through hindsight, to lead a future informed by foresight?
Prometheus means “foresight.” Epimetheus means “hindsight.” Image: Nevit Dilmon. Creative commons 3.0. Included with recognition.
Bird, Kai and Martin J. Sherwin. American Prometheus. 2006. ISBN: 0375726268
Bobin, Jean Louis. Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion. 2014. ISBN: 9789814590686
Davidson Frank. P, and K. Lusk Brooke. “The Manhattan Project and the Atomic Energy Act,” pages 477-514, Building the World. Volume 2. ISBN: 0313333742.
Gates, Bill. “Interview with Bill Gates on Nuclear Energy and Reaching Net Zero.” 21 October 2022. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). VIDEO. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y4pDyQzguJE
“Juneteenth Celebration” flyer for Juneteenth 1980 celebration at the Seattle Center. Image: Creative Commons 2.0, courtesy of Seattle Municipal Archives. Included with appreciation.
As we celebrate and honor Juneteenth, here, written and spoken by poet Maya Angelou, is “Still I Rise.”
Angelou, Maya. “Still I Rise.”
Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U
Can global connectivity bring our world together? Image: “GPS constellation of 24 satellites on six orbital planes” by Paulsava, 2016. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.
Can the orbital commons bring the world together? That was the vision of COMSAT. It all started with a 1955 article “Orbital Radio Relays” by John R. Pierce of Bell Labs, AT&T’s incubator for new ideas. Perhaps Pierce had read Arthur C. Clarke’s article “Extra-Terrestrial Relays,” published a decade before. When the first Trans-Atlantic Telephone Cable TAT-1 was laid in 1956 and Russia launched Sputnik in 1957, necessary pieces were in place. By 1960, AT&T applied to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for an experimental communications license. Two years later, the Communications Satellite Act presented a framework still relevant today. INTELSAT took the early leadership, achieving the first satellite-based global coverage on July 1, 1969. Just 19 days later, 500 million people around the world turned on televisions (the internet would come later) to witness, live, the first human setting foot on the moon.
Connectivity for All. But not everyone had a television, then; and not everyone has internet access now. Opening the World Wide Web to universal access, and enterprises like OneWeb, Starlink, and Project Kuiper, may finally achieve the goal of a global village.
“The OneWeb Logo” by Moving Brands and OneWeb, 2019. This image is in the public domain, wikimedia, Creative commons 1.0. Included with appreciation.
OneWeb has reached a definitive milestone. OneWeb has now launched the final set of satellites needed to complete its array providing global connectivity for those who need it most. Founded in 2012 by Greg Wyler, OneWeb was acquired by the United Kingdom (UK) in March 2020 in a deal with UK government and Bharti Enterprises Ltd. On 26 March 2023, OneWeb’s launch by NewSpace India Limited (NSIL) positioned 36 new satellites, achieving desirable redundancy over the 588 needed for global coverage. Theme of the launch? “Hello world!”
“Starlink Mission” by SpaceX, 2019. This image was dedicated by Starlink/SpaceX into the public domain, creative commons 1.0. Included with appreciation.
Starlink, a division of SpaceX, also aims to offer connectivity “to anywhere, from anywhere.” Starlink began launching satellites in 2019, focusing on individual customers, especially those in rural locations. In contrast, OneWeb concentrates on businesses and commercial providers.
“The Kuiper Belt (green) in the Solar System.” Move your mouse over the image to access annotations. Image: from Minor Planet Center (MPC), Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. This image is in the public domain, Wikimedia commons. Included with appreciation.
Project Kuiper, Amazon’s endeavor to place communications satellites in Low Earth Orbit (LEO), shares the goal of global connectivity. Many places in the world do not have internet access needed for school, science, and communication. Janet Phan of Project Kuiper and founder of Thriving Elements, expands communications equality and opportunity with a commitment to bring more girls and women into STEM careers through mentoring. Project Kuiper’s satellite constellation will work with Amazon’s network of ground stations (Amazon Web Services, Inc. (AWS). Kuiper customers will install a home outdoor terminal intended to be affordable ($400) and lightweight (less than five pounds (2.27 kilograms); for more modest price-point customers, a smaller and less expensive terminal will provide basic connectivity. The chip driving it all – “Prometheus.”
“A Loon balloon at the Christchurch launch event in June 2013.” Photographed by iLighter, 2013. Creative Commons 2.0. Included with appreciation.
Project Loon was a promising vision that ran out of air. An Alphabet Inc. subsidiary, Loon LLC aimed to provide internet access to remote areas using high-altitude balloons to form an aerial wireless network. Hence the name: “Loon” as in “Balloon.” Started as an R&D project in 2011, Loon became a separate entity in 2018. Using National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) data to identify wind layers with the right speed, Loon would place balloons in a chain to allow signals to pass from orb to orb, connecting to an internet antenna attached to the side of a residential or commercial building. First experiments were in California and New Zealand. The next year, Loon tested in Brazil, and later in Sri Lanka. Loon’s unique advantage was demonstrated after Hurricane Maria hit Puerto Rico; Loon brought 100,000 people back online in the storm’s destructive aftermath. But commercial viability proved elusive and Project Loon closed on 21 January 2021. Loon’s legacy continues. Project Taara, a pan-African vision, harnesses some of Loon’s technology to extend connectivity with the use of light beam internet technology as a way to plug critical connectivity gaps in rural areas.
“World Wide Web” logo designed by Robert Cailliau in 2007, who dedicated the image into the pubic domain. Creative commons 1.0. Included with appreciation.
World Wide Web Foundation upholds the goal of “Establishing the open Web as a basic right and a public good.” With 160 partner organizations in 70 countries, the World Wide Web Foundation was launched in 2009 by Sir Tim Berners-Lee and Rosemary Leith. It has helped 600 million people access the web. Sir Tim Berners-Lee established the world wide web (that’s the “www” in an internet address) and gave it to the world for free. Global connectivity remains a challenge: almost half of the world still lacks internet access. You can help.
“Syncom-1” image by NASA, 2007. Image is dedicated to the public domain, and included with appreciation.
The global satellite market is expected to grow by 9% from 2023-2029, accelerated by advances in the internet of things (IoT) and increased capacity in wireless interconnection between terrestrial and space-based technology. It’s an attractive market because global internet traffic will grow over 20% – annually. But there are vast differences in connectivity, with 7x difference between fastest and slowest internet speeds. In addition to the above companies, contenders include SES, Viasat, Intelsat, Telesat, General Dynamics, Cobham Limited, Gilat Satellite Networks, EchoStar, Inmarsat, Eutelsat, Hughs Network Systems, Arqiva, Russian Satellite Communications Company, Thaicom, Globecast, Telespazio, and Telstra, according to the World Teleport Association.
A computer-generated image of objects that are currently being tracked including orbital debris like non-functional satellites. Image: “Debris-GEO1290” by NASA, 2005. Image is in the public domain and included with appreciation.
It’s getting crowded up there, with so many satellites vying for optimal position. One concern is how to retrieve non-functional satellites before they become orbital debris. As of November 2022, the U.S. Space Surveillance Network found 5, 465 operating satellites in orbit. But these are among 25,857 objects circling the Earth. That tally only accounts for objects large enough to track. There are more than 128 million pieces of space debris smaller than 0.4 inches (1 centimeter). Even a tiny fleck can damage a satellite. There’s a tech term for such flecks: Micrometeoroid and Orbital Debris (MMOD).
Can we cooperate to achieve global connectivity and orbital justice? Image: “Animation of Orbital Eccentricity” by Phoenix7777, 2020. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.
Orbital justice: law and governance of space. A McKinsey report summarizes the challenges and opportunities for global governance of this shared frontier. The European Space Agency (ESA) introduced in 2022 the “Statement for a Responsible Space Sector” espousing principles of governance, inclusive social benefit, fair access to space, preservation of Earth through space-based monitoring, and promotion of human rights. Space, and the communications spectrum, belong equally to everyone on the Earth. How can you choose your internet provider with these principles in mind?
Clarke, Arthur C. “Extra-Terrestrial Relays.” October 1945. Wireless World, pages 305-8. Facsimile at http:www.lsi.usp.br/~rbianchi/clarke/ACC.ETR2.gif
Davidson, Frank P. and Kathleen Lusk Brooke. “COMSAT: The Communications Satellite” in Building the World, Volume II, pages 623-639. Greenwood: 2006. ISBN: 0313333742 and 9780313333743.
Pierce, John Robinson. The Beginnings of Satellite Communications. History of Technology Monograph. Berkeley, California: San Francisco Press, 1968. ISBN: 0911302050, and 9780911302059.
Veterans Day, a Call to Peace. “Veterans Day Poster, 1987.” Wikimedia. Included with appreciation.
Today is Veterans Day, observed in the United States on November 11 since 1919, and founded to commemorate the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month (in 1918) when an Armistice ended World War I. Soon thereafter, the Paris Peace Conference resulted in the Treaty of Versailles. In 1954, Armistice Day was renamed Veterans Day. While today honors those who serve in readiness for war, the origin of the holiday is peace.
Peacetime Roman Army built roads and aqueducts. Image: “Praetorian Guard, circa 50 CE.” Louvre, France. Photograph by Jérémy-Günther-Heinz Jähnick. Gnu license, wikimedia. Included with appreciation.
What is the role of armies in peace? During times of peace, the Roman Army built roads that connected Italy and beyond, and deployed military squadrons to explore and then build the Roman Aqueducts to bring fresh water to the central city. The Netherlands instituted Dike Armies in 1319 to respond to water emergencies.
“Colorado River, Horseshoe Bend,” by photographer Paul Hermans, 2012. CC3.0, wikimedia. Included with appreciation.
Water emergencies are still with us today, perhaps more than ever. The Colorado River, bringing water and electricity to 1 in 10 Americans, as well as agriculture and industry, is 19% smaller than in 2000; reservoirs Lake Mead and Lake Powell are severely depleted. Hydroelectricity, produced by Hoover Dam’s harnessing of the Colorado River, is threatened by drought. The Mississippi River suffers concerning depletion. The same is true for many rivers around the world. Rights of Rivers deserve protection. Who will defend them?
“Hurricane Ian making landfall, 28 September 2022,” by National Hurricane Center, U.S. National Weather Service. Public Domain, wikimedia. Included with appreciation.
Water problems are causing drought and also inundation. Recent torrents from Hurricane Ian devastated Florida, caused loss of life and property damage totaling in the billions. Areas hit by increasingly powerful floods and storms need rebuilding. Who will do this? How can we best respond to climate damage, or build protection?
History offers an inspiration to uphold military expertise, service, and tradition. We might save our coasts by a modern day equivalent of the Dike Army. We can follow the productive example of the Roman army in sustaining the Colorado River and other threatened water sources. Armies, and veterans, might serve in what William James called the “Moral Equivalent of War” – defending Nature and Peace.
“Pace” – Italian for Peace. Can we find inspiration in the Roman Army’s works of peace? Image: “Pace” by Fibonacci, CCC3.0. Wikimedia. Included with appreciation.
James, William. “The Moral Equivalent of War.” Lecture 11, pages 267-296, in Memories and Studies. NY: Longman Green and Company, 1911 and presented at Stanford University in 1910 followed by publication in McClure’s Magazine, pages 463-468, August 1910. LINK to text: http://www.public-library.uk/ebooks/65/5.pdf
“DART’s Trajectory” animation based on NASA’s HORIZONS System by Phoenix7777. CC4.0. Included with appreciation.
Because there was a hit, there will be a miss, In baseball, that’s bad: in asteroid defense, that’s good. In a historic success, NASA, sent the Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) to asteroid Dimorphos. It’s a small target: the relatively tiny asteroid is just 530 feet (180 meters) in diameter. And it’s a distance achievement: Dimorphos is 7 million miles (11 million kilometers) away. And it’s a fast shot: DART crashed into the asteroid at 14,000 miles (22,530 kilometers) per hour.
“Asteroid Dimorphos seconds before DART impact.” by Doug Ellison and NASA, 26 September 2022. Public Domain. Included with appreciation to Doug Ellison and NASA.
An asteroid that might someday impact the Earth could destroy life on our shared planet, as it did with dinosaurs 66 million years ago. The impact of a six-mile-wide asteroid, called Chicxulub by today’s scientists, hit just off Mexico and killed 75% of Earth’s species.
“Depiction of Spinosaurus” from exhibit at Visvesvaraya Industrial & Technological Museum, Bangalore, India, by VITM 2018. CC 4.0. Included with appreciation.
While a similar disaster is not imminent, preparation is. In an illustration of cooperation in our orbital commons, NASA worked in partnership with Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) and Italian Space Agency’s LICIACube. In four years, the European Space Agency (ESA) Hera mission will conduct surveys of Dimorphos to examine the crater left by DART’s direct hit. Both are part of the Asteroid Impact and Deflection Assessment (AIDA) collaboration.
There are between 1.1 to 1.9 million asteroids within the asteroid belt, pictured here as the white “donut” ring. Illustration by Mdf, Wikimedia/creative commons, public domain donation. Included with appreciation.
Meanwhile, the hit was deemed a success, knocking Dimorphos into a different orbit. The test proves we have capability to deflect an oncoming asteroid or comet, such as that depicted in the recent film “Don’t Look Up.” Want to see a video of the final moments before DART crashed into Dimorphos? Click here.
If our civilization is able to cooperate, and succeed, in something so distant, is there hope for similar cooperation and success a bit closer to home?
Can space cooperation bring the dawn of peace? “Pink Sky Peace,” by Pink Sherbet Photography, Creative Commons 2.0. Included with appreciation, and hope.
