On 20 July, in 1969, the first human to set foot upon the moon proclaimed the achievement was: “One small step for a person, one giant leap for humankind.” Since the Nasa Apollo lunar landing, advances in space have accelerated.
Six moon landings were completed by the US between 1969 and 1972. Russia deployed the first extraterrestrial rovers up until 1976. Since then, the moon has been visited by China, European Space Agency (ESA), India, Israel, Italy, Luxembourg, Pakistan, Russia, South Korea, and the United Arab Emirates.
While the Outer Space Treaty prohibits countries from proclaiming ownership of the moon, or other celestial bodies, private enterprise is not forbidden. At the time the Outer Space Treaty was developed, it was thought that no commercial company could ever amass needed funding, staff, and technology. But now, governments are partnering with businesses to explore – and exploit – lunar assets.
The moon contains water ice (useful for rocket fuel from hydrogen), helium-3 (useful for fusion reactors), and critical minerals including rare earths. There are also deposits of aluminum, calcium, manganese, magnesium, and titanium, as well as iron and silicon.
Agreements since the UN’s Outer Space Treaty (1967) further defined and regulated lunar assets. The 1972 Convention on International Liability for Damage caused by Space Objects, and the 1979 Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies may influence lunar activities.
During this time of demand for critical minerals, humans are beginning to look beyond traditional land. The International Seabed Authority (ISA) is considering whether to permit ocean mining: environmental damage could be severe. Would the moon be safer? What about space debris? ISA decisions might affect space mining: ocean and space are the commons that belong to everyone.
What do you think about space mining? Who owns the assets? What environmental and other aspects might need guidelines? Should the world’s governing organizations like the United Nations further define rights for space?
Brooke, K. Lusk. “Mining for Critical Minerals: Land, Sea, or Space? ” 27 February 2025. Building the World Blog. https://blogs.umb.edu/buildingtheworld/2025/02/27/energy-critical-minerals-land-sea-or-space/
Koch, Jonathan Sydney. “Institutional Framework for the Province of all Mankind: Lessons from the International Seabed Authority for the Governance of Commercial Space Mining,” 2008, Astropolitics 16: 1, pages 1-27. https://www.tandfronline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14777622.2017.1381824
International Seabed Authority. https://www.isa.org.jm
United Nations. “Outer Space Treaty.” 1967. https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html
United Nations. “Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects.” 1972. https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introliability-convention.html
United Nations. “Moon Treaty.” 1979. https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/intromoon-agreement.html
Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U
