Critical minerals are driving geopolitics, and they are also driving right in your car or cellphone. Recycle your rechargeable batteries. Image: Patrhoue, true-world.com, 2009. Public Domain, with appreciation.
Drive your EV straight into the future. Answer the call to renew energy with your cellphone. Mind, don’t mine.
Between a rock, and a hard place. Do we need mining to obtain critical – renewable – minerals? Image: “Rock/Mineral” by SemiletovaOlga, 2015. Creative Commons 4.0. With appreciation.
C0balt, copper, lithium, nickel – critical minerals are driving destructive mining (including impending deep seabed mining that may damage the marine environment). But what if we didn’t need to destroy land (and sea) with explosives? Or pollute groundwater with leaching chemicals? Or deal with toxic mine tailings? Or pressure sketchy trade agreements for critical minerals?
Critical minerals could transform energy, just as did the Hoover Dam. Photograph by Ansel Adams, 1941. National Archives #519837. Public domain, with appreciation.
One answer may be in the desert of Nevada, not far from the earlier energy innovation of the Hoover Dam, where a small company has a big idea. Strategic mission? Supply critical minerals needed for renewable energy by recycling batteries that power everything from cellphones to electric vehicles.
Original CTO at Tesla, Straubel founded Redwood to harvest critical minerals used in batteries. Photo by Rudolf Simon, 2013. Creative Commons 3.0, with appreciation.
Tesla co-founder Jeffrey B. Straubel opened Redwood Materials in 2017 with a belief that all those electric vehicles (EV) would soon need battery replacement. That would mean a new market for end-of-service batteries. While Redwood currently recycles many lithium-ion batteries that make up 90% of its business, and also old cellphones and e-waste, the prize is an EV battery because of its size. EV batteries yield $2,000 of value in metals – all in one convenient big package.
China is leading in recycling critical minerals, as well as their refining: keys to renewable energy. Image: Chinese Hall by Marroyo12. Creative Commons 2.0. With appreciation.
China, with leadership in critical minerals and renewable energy products like solar panels and wind turbines, is also first in battery recycling to yield minerals. With 50 plants devoted just to battery recycling, China currently recycles 20% of cobalt and nickel, 10% of lithium with a goal of 100% recycled battery materials by 2042. China also leads the world in EVs. Since the Grand Canal (still under expansion as world’s longest construction project), China has innovated transport. EVs are the latest.
Recycling symbol by Krdan, 2007. Public Domain. With appreciation.
Worldwide, if battery recycling advances, 30% of cobalt, lithium, and nickel could be obtained for new batteries by 2040, as gauged by Benchmark Mineral Intelligence, a London research firm covering markets for cobalt, copper, graphite, nickel, and lithium. Where does this leave climate deniers like the present US administration? Behind. Redwood Materials is growing, but many American battery recyclers still ship retrieved minerals to Asia for insertion into new batteries.
Dollar Sign by Scott Steiner. Public Domain, with appreciation.
Investors and environmentalists, take note. By 2027, the battery recycling market is predicted to grow to $17 billion. Key battery recyclers include:
American Battery Technology Company https://americanbatterytechnology.com
Is mining for minerals obsolete? It should be. Recycling batteries for minerals emits 58% less carbon and uses 72% less water than mining. Yes, it is inconvenient and expensive, but that’s an area for innovation with a big pay-off.
Driving renewal. Image: “NonUK Roundabout 8 Cars” by Mintguy/Fredrik et al. Creative Commons 3.0. With appreciation.
If you are an investor, explore battery recycling companies. If you have devices with rechargeable batteries, when your technology is ready for replacement, please recycle: some companies above provide website drop-off information. Use your power to drive a better future through battery recycling to reuse critical minerals and renew the world.
Zhang, Ben, et al., “Lithium-ion battery recycling relieves the threat to material scarcity amid China’s electric vehicle ambitions.” Nature Communications 16, article number 6661 (2025). https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-61481-y
Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U
Cities provide water to residents and businesses, and may lead the way to renewing water in the era of climate change. “Animation of water drop on a faucet,” by Chris 73. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.
Ever since humans began to gather in settlements, water use has been key to successful communities. The Code of Hammurabi, 1750 bce, detailed regulations on, among other things, irrigation and water use. Roman Aqueducts supplied water to a growing city; China’s Grand Canal brought water from the south to the capital Beijing, and still does today.
Where does Beijing get its water? The Grand Canal was built to carry water from the south to the north. Today, the purpose remains. The city also gets water from the Kunming Reservoir. Beijing channels reclaimed water for non-potable use from 300 wastewater plants serving the city. Image: “Modern Course of Grand Canal” by Ian Kiu, 2003. CC 3.0. Included with appreciation.
Water and energy are important ways cities can make a difference in climate change. In this series, we’ll take a look at how some cities are using (and reusing) these two essentials. Let’s start with water.
Cities and water are deeply intertwined. “Portland, Oregon at night” by Tabitha Mort, 2017. Creative Commons0 1.0, public domain, and included with appreciation.
Urban buildings use 14% of the world’s available potable water, but very few currently recycle and reuse this key resource. Water reuse can improve potable water availability by 25% in households and 75% in urban commercial buildings, according to the WateReuse Association and partner National Blue Ribbon Commission for Onsite Water Systems. Drawing together agriculture, business, commercial buildings, and municipal utilities, the Recycled Water User Network (TM) connects recycled water users with innovative approaches. Looking to update your career? There’s even a job bank.
In the European Union, the Water Reuse system Wise Freshwater established innovations and programs. While more than 40,000 million m3 of wastewater is treated in the EU, less than 3% is reused. With the Water Reuse Regulation (WRR) there are now mandated approaches to water circularity.
Flag of the African Union, with 55 current member states. Image: African Union, 2010, public domain. Included with appreciation.
The African Union (AU) introduced a Water Vision for 2025 for integrated water resources management related to the UN’s Sustainable Development Goal 6. African Water Facility notes that every dollar invested in water and sanitation produces seven dollars in benefits.
In the US, where water is a critical issue, both for drought and also in floods, five cities may lead the way to policy and innovation:
City planners often begin with water access. Image: Edwin Waller’s Layout for Austin, Texas in 1873. Creative Commons public domain, included with appreciation.
Austin, Texas launched their GoPurple water-saving program as part of the city’s 100-year plan Water Forward. By connecting mandated onsite water reuse systems (OWRS) to reclaimed water, Austin uses non-potable water for urban high-rise cooling towards, sanitation systems, and some irrigation.
Los Angeles: view of the Palisades Fire. By photographer Toasttal, 2025. Included with appreciation.
Los Angeles, California has suffered from drought and resultant wildfire. The city employs reclaimed water for industry, irrigation, and replenishing groundwater. LA developed a Green Building Code mandating that residential buildings over 25 stories have cooling towers serviced by non-potable water. Smaller buildings must reduce water use by 20%, and plumbing fixtures must use recycled water.
Miami: city of beaches, rising seas, and water policy. “Miami, Florida” by photographer Diego Delso, 2008. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.
Miami, Florida grants real estate developers a 35% bonus if units use greywater and install onsite water reuse systems in buildings with more than 25 units. In the Florida Statute 403.892, the state details incentives for greywater (sometimes spelled graywater), a term for residential or office building water from all sources – except toilets.
“Phoenix Arizona Desert Heatwave Sunrise 2023” by photographer Ray Redstone, 2023. Creative Commons 4.0, included with appreciation.
Phoenix, Arizona is one of the most arid cities in the world. The city’s Water Smart incentive program offers free consultations on water conservation, reuse, and recycling. Approaches include appliance replacement rebate programs and financial incentives for removing grass. Training a new generation for water use in the future environment, Phoenix also offers classroom materials in Spanish and English.
San Francisco as seen from Marin Highlands by photographer Paul h., 2006. Public domain and included with appreciation.
San Francisco, California passed Article 12C of the city’s health code, requiring all new development projects over 100,000 gross square feet (9,290.304) install onsite water reuse systems. The city provides an Onsite Water Reuse Program Guidebook.
Cities are faster and more efficient policy makers than nations. While in the US, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) may be affected by decisions and programs such as the Water Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (WIFIA), a federal credit program administered by the EPA offering loans for water and wastewater infrastructure projects, cities may be a more reliable action point. By 2050, 69% of the world’s population will be urban. Are cities the climate policy leaders of the future?
Taketa, Õita Prefecture, Japan, uses circular water sharing. Image by Tsutsui Mizuki, 2007. Dedicated to the public domain by the photographer; included with appreciation.
Human use affects more than 70% of the global, ice-free land surface (IPCC 2019). Water resources will continue to be a critical issue. Cities may lead the way. C40 Cities is a global network of mayors uniting in action to respond to the climate crisis. With 97 cities comprising 22% of the entire global economy, C40 offers a Knowledge Hub for all cities to find ways to improve and protect the future.
Do you live in a city, large or small? How does your city use (and reuse) water?
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Climate Change and Land: An IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems. P.R. Shukla, et al., editors. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157988.001
“Beating Heart” Gif by Mraid123, 2016. Creative Commons 4.0.
Valentine’s Day celebrates love in all its many wonderful forms and cultural traditions. But the greatest love of record, according to DNA, might be Genghis Khan. DNA tracing reveals over 16 million people now living are related to the legendary Mogul emperor whose dynasty helped to renovate, repair, and advance China’s Grand Canal.
Genghis Khan, from National Palace Museum, China. Public Domain.
When Ghengis’ nephew, Kublai Khan, became emperor, he directed grain be moved northward to the new capital the dynasty had established: Dadu. Khan commanded that 816,000 tons of grain be delivered to the capital: 537,000 had to come from the fertile south. But how? The Grand Canal, China’s internal waterway.
Grand Canal, Wanning Bridge, Beijing, China by EditQ, 2023. Creative Commons 4.0.
However, there was a slight problem. When grain arrived at the Yangtze region by boat, it had to be transferred over land about 20 miles (32 kilometers) because the waterway did not stretch all the way to Dadu – yet. Local farmers were forced to loan their draft animals to the project: agriculture suffered, as did the beasts.
Kublai (Qubilai Setsen Khaan) Khan by artist Araniko (1244-1306). Public Domain.
When Kublai Khan observed the problem, the new emperor ordered the Grand Canal add a seventh section to reach the capital. In the building project, the entire waterway was straightened and strengthened. Once the liquid highway was complete, communications improved, agriculture thrived, and the capital rose in importance. Some say the Grand Canal transformed a region into a nation. Today, Dadu continues to have a national role: it is now named Beijing.
Grand Canal by Goverlynn, 2016. Creative Commons 4.0.
Khan dynasty also had a national, and apparently a global role. Genghis Khan fathered five daughters and four sons with his primary wife Börte, and many more with 500 secondary spouses. Genghis Khan, master of conquest in more ways than one, may be said to have caused increases in areas of society, technology, and indeed civilization.
Genghis Khan areas of involvement. Graphic by Bkkbrad, 2018. Creative Commons 2.5.
Oxford University’s Professor Chris Taylor-Smith analyzed DNA of males across 16 ethic populations. Many shared a notable Y chromosome. It appears that its unique characteristics can be traced to Genghis Khan. Today, if you are a male reading this post, you may be part of 0.5% of the world’s population descending from Genghis Khan who was born in 1162, died in 1227, and was – apparently – very busy in between.
Genghis Khan conquered a wide territory of land, and hearts. Image: “Animated heart” by Filthy Cat, Public Domain.
Davidson, Frank P. and K. Lusk Brooke. “The Grand Canal of China.” Building the World, Volume 1, chapter 4, pages 35-46. Greenwood: 2006. ISBN: 0313333734.
Baltimore’s Francis Scott Key Bridge disaster is a tragedy. You can help here and here.Image: ‘Cable stayed suspension bridge” by Wikideas1, 2024. Pubic Domain CC0 1.0. Included with appreciation to the artist and support for Baltimore’s families who have suffered loss.
The tragedy of the Francis Scott Key Bridge brings deep sorrow for those lost and injured, as the search for those still missing continued after the accident. The Baltimore bridge was slammed by cargo vessel Dali after the 984 foot (299 meters) ship lost power and could not avoid collision. A MayDay call was sent, but it was too late. Citizens in the area rushed to help, forming a human blockade to prevent oncoming traffic from entering the bridge access.
“Francis Scott Key Bridge and Cargo Ship Dali” tragic accident photograph by NTSBgov, March 2024. This image is in the public domain.
While using waterways for transport is an ancient idea, and has recently been championed by European transport experts as more environmentally beneficial, the size of cargo ships must be considered. Europe has 23,000 miles (37,014 kilometers) of waterways: using canals and rivers for cargo transport could reduce emissions from trucks. Presently, 6.5 million trucks deliver goods across Europe, while rail carries just 5% and rivers 2%. European port operator Haropa proposed rivers and canals as a means of cargo delivery. But when European canals, as well the American Erie Canal were built, and the bridges that span these waterways, cargo vessels carrying goods were smaller.
The Ever Given cargo ship, stuck in the Suez Canal in 2021, was so large it could be seen from the International Space Station. Photo: NASA/ISS 27 March 2021. Public Domain.
Now, the size of the average cargo ship is considerably larger. Ships that have problems can cause major trouble, like the container ship Ever Given that got stuck in the Suez Canal. In the first three months of 2024, cargo ships have hit bridges in Argentina, China, and the United States. Some would question if waterways, and bridges, are ready for the size of cargo vessels now used. The Port of Baltimore is the 11th largest in the United States. It is an important transport center, but what are the limits of the ships that traverse its waters? What safety measures need to be in place in the world’s ports? Coastal cities around the world are some of the most important ports. Baltimore is one; Boston is another. Will sea level rise threaten the safety of ports?
Zakim Bridge in Boston, Massachusetts, USA, completed in 2002, named to honor Leonard P. Zakim. It is the largest asymmetrical cable-stayed bridge in the world. Photograph by Eric Vance, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2019. Public Domain Creative Cpmmons0 1.0. Included with appreciation.
While the Francis Scott Key bridge was not structurally deficient (although there has been comment on its structural redundancy, a term for extra support that can compensate for damage preventing collapse, as well as pier protection) and was certified as completely up-to-code, too many of our spans are in need of strengthening. Bridges last about 50 years before showing problems. The age of the average bridge in the United States is 42. A study by the American Road and Transport Builders Association (ARTBA) revealed that 36% of U.S. bridges – 222,000 – are in need of repair. The total cost? $319 billion. How much is currently allocated? $3.2 billion.
Roman aqueducts and bridges utilized the famous Roman Arch. Image: “Roman Aqueduct in Tarragona, Spain” by Cruccone. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.
Bridges were once, and remain, so important to city planning and security that in ancient Rome, only the Pope and a small cadre of bishops had the right to authorize a bridge. From that historic beginning, we get our word “pontiff” (Latin “pontifex” from “pons” (bridge) + “facere” (to do or make). Only the Pontiff of Rome could issue a bridge permit. In olden days of China, there was a bridge over which only the Emperor could walk.
“London Bridge” by Claes Van Visscher, 1616. This image, in the public domain, was offered by Mahagaja. It is included with appreciation.
Many transport historians might mark stages of civilization by connections formed via bridges. London Bridge changed the commerce of the city. Its span was the location of what may be one of the first shopping malls: retail stalls built along the structure paid rent that helped support bridge repairs. London Bridge is significant, too, for what was perhaps the first worker’s compensation plan, according to King John’s document of authorization to the Lord Mayor of London.
“Brooklyn Bridge, originally the Great East River Suspension Bridge” by Currier and Ives, 1883. Public Domain. Included with appreciation.
Bridges can raise the spirit: the Brooklyn Bridge has inspired more poetry than any other bridge in history. Hart Crane’s “To Brooklyn Bridge,“offers reflections upon the span. The bridge is also connected to philosophy: it began in the mind of John Roebling who contemplated teachings of his professor at the Royal Polytechnic in Berlin: the philosopher Hegel. It was one of Hegel’s theories that gave Roebling the idea: it came to him in a flash during a hike in Bamberg. He sat down on a rock and sketched what would become the Brooklyn Bridge.
“Hammersmith Bridge” by photographer Alex Muller, 2008. This image is licensed by Creative Commons 3.0. It is included with appreciation to Alex Mulller.
British spans were recently studied: 17 were found to be in danger of collapse and 37 were on the watch list. The Hammersmith Bridge across the Thames River showed cracks in the 100+ year-old structure, causing the banning of vehicles since 2019.
“Morandi Bridge” by photographer Davide Papalini, 2010. This image is licensed under Creative Commons 3.0. It is included with appreciation to Davide Papalini.
European Union bridges tend to be on the older side: many were built as part of the Marshall Plan, just after World War II in the mid 1940s. Germany’s Leverkusen Bridge developed concrete cracks and was closed to heavy vehicles in 2012. In 2018, Italy’s Morandi Bridge connecting Genoa to France collapsed in a drenching rain storm. Built with only one pair of cable stays to support each section, vulnerability may have been inherent in the design.
Will bridges, many built in earlier times for different conditions, withstand the stronger storms of climate change? Britain’s Tay Rail Bridge washed out and collapsed in a strong storm in 1879. Image: Tay Bridge Catastrophe, 1879. Image origin: public domain, author unknown.
Climate change and attendant extreme weather, including intense winds and storms creating waves and floods, may affect bridges. In areas with drought subject to wildfire, bridges might need protection in parts of the span that may contain fiberoptic cable. Concrete may seem strong, but it cracks at 500 degrees Fahrenheit and melts at 2,500 degrees. Innovations like “First Line Fire Blankets” can be applied to bridges, power cables, and even gas pipelines. Make of E-glass fiber that resists thermal conductivity, “fire blankets” can be retrofitted to protect critical infrastructure.
China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) is building many new bridges. Are there opportunities for innovation that can respond to climate change? The Mohammed VI Bridge, Morocco, was a BRI project. Image courtesy of Ministry of Equipment and Transport, Morocco, 2016. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.
Older bridges may be supported by vigilance and retrofitting. Newer construction has opportunities for innovation. China’s Belt and Road Initiative, connecting Asia all the way to Africa and Europe, may tally $8 trillion. Financed in part by loans to countries that agree to the building of bridges, ports, roads, railways, China’s debts-owed increased 20% since 2013 when the project launched. More than 68 countries have signed on to participate in the project that will involve 65% of the world’s entire population. Bridges in the plan include the China-Maldives Friendship Bridge, Maputo Bay Bridges in Mozambique, Mohammed VI Bridge in Morocco, and the Peljesac Bridge in Croatia. Decisions made about bridge design, strength, maintenance, and technology may determine the future of the much of the world’s connectivity over water, and also over terrain needing aerial bypass. What are some ways bridges can be improved?
A view of Baltimore’s Key Bridge in 2011 by photographer Sarnold17. This image is licensed in Creative Commons 3.0.
Meanwhile, Baltimore mourns. If you would like to help those affected, you may help here and here.
World Water Day 2024: Water and Peace. Image: “Peace Dove and Olive Branch at Flight.” by Nevit. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.
WATER: It is our natural shared element. Earth is 70% water. Our bodies are 68% water; plants as much as 90%. Water is one of our most important shared resources. Can what is shared be a passage to peace?
Civilization has advanced by sharing water. Image: “Xvolks Canal des Deux Mers (or Canal du Midi)” by Xvolks, 2005. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.
Throughout history, civilization advanced by sharing water. China’s Grand Canal carried water, and food, from the south to the northern capital. Italy’s Aqueducts brought fresh spring water from surrounding hills to the city of Rome. France joined the Atlantic to the Mediterranean via the Canal des Deux Mers. The Colorado River, water source for 40 million people, shares water with the United States, many original American tribal nations, and Mexico, while providing hydroelectric power. The Tennessee Valley Authority harnessed water to provide electricity with its guiding motto: “Power for All.” Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric is now building Snowy 2.0 that will re-use and recirculate water for pumped hydro energy. The Suez Canal has, in its founding firman, assurance that the waterway must be open to all nations in times of war and peace.
March 22, 2024 World Water Day: Water and Peace. Image: “Peace” by photographer Lindsay Ensing, 2011. Creative Commons 2.0. Included with appreciation.
This year, the United Nations, convener of World Water Day adopted in 1992, offers the theme of Water and Peace. How fortunate we are that water is a renewable resource, if its wise use is designed to follow its natural system dynamics. In our time of climate change, when drought may cause water scarcity, respecting and honoring ways to sustain, renew, and share water may inspire peace. How will you honor water and peace?
How will you help the world honor water and peace? Image: “The World of Water” by photographer Snap. Creative Commons 2.0. Included with appreciation,
Happy Valentine’s Day from Genghis Khan! Image: “Beating Heart” animation by Mraid123. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.
Valentine’s Day celebrates love in all its many wonderful forms and cultural traditions. But the greatest lover of record, according to DNA, might be Genghis Khan. According to DNA tracing, over 16 million people are related to the legendary Mogul emperor whose dynasty helped to renovate, repair, and advance China’s Grand Canal.
“Ghengis Khan” from 14th century painting, public domain.
Kublai Khan, Genghis’ nephew, when he became emperor, directed grain be moved northward to the new capital the dynasty had established: Dadu. Khan commanded that 816,000 tons of grain annually, with the major share – 537,000 tones – coming from the south, be delivered to the new capital. But when the supply arrived from the Yangtze region by the canal, it still had to be transported 20 miles (32 kilometers) further to reach Dadu. To accomplish this task, draft animals were conscripted, leaving farmers without adequate help: agriculture suffered. Kublai Khan saw the problem and ordered the Grand Canal’s seventh section to be completed, straightening and improving the entire route during construction of the final leg. Once the water highway was complete, communications between and among all parts of the empire could reach the capital, as well as the grain. Some say the Grand Canal transformed a region into a nation. Today, we know Dadu as Beijing.
“Wanning Bridge on China’s Grand Canal” by EditQ, 2023. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.
Kublai Khan’s uncle Genghis fathered five daughters and four sons with his primary wife Börte, and as many as 500 secondary spouses. Known as a master of conquest, Genghis Khan, 13h century warrior and ruler, left his mark on civilization, and with his DNA apparently well distributed, he may have personally caused a substantial increase in civilization. In 2003, evolutionary geneticist Professor Chris Tyler-Smith of Oxford University analyzed the DNA of males across 16 Asian ethnic populations. Many shared the same Y-chromosome array. Dating the pattern back, Tyler-Smith found the origin appears to be Genghis Khan who ruled at the time the particular DNA array first emerged and then proliferated. Today, if you are a male reading this post, you may be part of 0.5% of the world’s population descending from Genghis Khan, who was born in 1162, died in 1227, and very busy in between.
“Kublai Khan” by photographer A. Omer Karamollaoglu, 2012. Creative Commons 2.0. Included with appreciation.
Dynasties are continuations – traditions and genetics. Kublai Khan, Genghis’ nephew, inspired the mysterious poem by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. It begins:
In Xanadu did Kubla Khan
A stately pleasure-dome decree:
Where Alph, the sacred river, ran
Through caverns measureless to man
Down to a sunless sea…
But oh! that deep romantic chasm which slanted
Down the green hill athwart a cedarn cover!
A savage place! as holy and enchanted
As e’er beneath a waning moon was haunted
By woman wailing for her demon-lover!
For the whole poem, click here. To hear it read by Sir Ian McKellen, click here.
Davidson, Frank P. and K. Lusk Brooke, “The Grand Canal of China.” Building the World, Volume 1, Chapter 4, pages 35-46. Greenwood: 2006. ISBN: 0313333734
The ancient silk road originated in China. Image: “Caravane sur la Route de la Soie” by artist and cartographer Cresques Abraham (1325-1387. Image from Gallica Digital Library. Creative commons public domain. Included with appreciaiton.
While many animals (and a few plants) move around, humans may be the only species that builds roads, ships, and aircraft to do so. Human history can be traced by modes of transport: carts and wheels, ships and sails, trains and rails, tunnels and tubes, roads and vehicles, aircraft and wings, rockets and boosters. The ancient Silk Road, emanating from China around 206 bc, running 4,000 miles (6,437 kilometers), was one of the first extended paths over land. China’s Grand Canal connected to the sea via one of the world’s first inland waterways. Transport is about connection: ancient China achieved both land and sea routes that resulted in cultural and economic exchange.
In 2013, China announced the Belt and Road Initiative. Now, in 2023, here is a map of the project. “Topographic map of the Belt and Road Economic Corridor and pathway cities” by graphic artist, 18 October 2023. Creative commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.
One decade ago, China announced what some call Silk Road 2.0; its formal name is the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). This week, representatives from nearly 150 countries met in Beijing to consider next steps. One agenda item: debt. China has reportedly financed airports, bridges, hydroelectric facilities, pipelines, ports, and roads in extensive world locations with an understanding that the receiving country would pay back loans and share user fees. There have been criticisms, as well as defaults and delays. Nepal’s new Pokhara Airport opened with a big price tag but as yet small revenue. China recently restructured debt with Argentina, Sri Lanka, and Zambia, among others. Not everyone is staying in the program; Italy had joined but is now trying to leave. But some countries and their leaders are decidedly there: Russia’s Putin was at the meeting, so was Haji Nooruddin Azizi, a minister of the Taliban. (Cash 2023)
Belt and Road Forum representatives, 17 October 2023. Image: from Kremlin.ru. Creative commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.
Perhaps in response to concerns involving environmental and justice concerns, China launched the 2021 Global Development Initiative to promote “economic and social development” with a funding deposit of $10 billion. The total BRI extension in loans and grants is estimated at $1 trillion.
The Belt and Road Initiative has both pro and con issues. Image: “Plus, Minus, and Equality Signs” by graphic artist Sa-se. Creative Commons public domain. Included with appreciation.
While debt is a concerning issue (some say it is a con in the word’s two meanings) so is pollution: China’s overseas fossil-fuel power plants emit 245 million tons of CO2 annually. Another factor is land use change, with further environmental damage and loss of biodiversity, especially to land that is the home of original, indigenous people. However, there may also be pros. China has extended $500 billion in funding that some say could improve the infrastructure and industrial capabilities of some areas that desire growth but may have had challenges getting funding. From any angle, the Belt and Road Initiative is macro and global.
The Belt and Road Initiative may soon circle the world. It is one of the most important macro projects in history. Could the BRI be an opportunity for renewable energy, sustainable water, and perhaps even a new understanding of our interconnected world? How can you get involved to make it so? Image: “Animated Globe with Flags” by graphic artist Meclee, 2012. Creative commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.
The scope and span of the BRI make it one of the most significant agents in climate. The sheer volume of concrete, for example, could influence the environment: what if the BRI instituted a policy regarding the use of concrete as a carbon capture and containment? Ditto BRI’s energy use: as a leader in solar, could China favor renewable technology in BRI projects? BRi may be the biggest and most impactful construction project in history. We need to pay more attention. How can we influence climate and justice decisions? Want to know more? Start here, or here.
Saltwater is rolling in on the Mississippi River. Image: “The waves on the water” by graphic artist Elapros, 2011. Creative commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.
Tina Turner famously sang about Proud Mary Rollin’ on the River. But now the mighty Mississippi River is not rolling with cruise boats. A Viking line riverboat recently set sail but was stuck for an entire day on a sandbar. The Mississippi river is suffering from drought, reducing the river’s freshwater flow and allowing salty water from the Gulf of Mexico to enter the river. Affected are plants, wildlife, and people – including those in the city of New Orleans, Louisiana.
“Skyline of New Orleans, Louisiana, USA” by Michael Maples, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1999. Public Domain. Included with appreciation.
With the drought depleting the Mississippi’s freshwater resources, a saltwater wedge is forming that may reach the urban area by the end of October 2023. Why a wedge? The shape is formed by differences in saltwater (more dense) and freshwater: when the two kinds of water come together, they form a wedge.
Salter intrusion can affect the environment. Another concern is the water infrastructure. Image: “Saltwater intrusion” graphic by Sweetian, 2011. Creative commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.
As coastal and river communities consume more water, drawing from available aquifers, seawater can encroach. That affects both farming (5% salinity makes water unsuitable for agriculture) and drinking water (2% salinity renders freshwater undrinkable). Rivers are also an important habitat for flora and fauna, estuarial environments, and wildlife: all of these are affected by salinity.
Salt can corrode. When drinking water distribution systems contain lead in the pipes, results can be disastrous. Image: “Rusted water pipe” by photographer Geographer, 2008. Creative commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.
While salty water is dangerous for a number of environmental reasons, another serious concern is its corrosive effect. Some of pipes in New Orleans’ water distribution system may still have lead. This is the case for many American cities whose pipes are older than 1986, when a law was passed that prohibits using lead in water systems. One million people in southeast Louisiana are on watch and in danger. Flint, Michigan suffered a tragedy when lead from its aging system leached into drinking water: by the time pediatrician Dr. Mona Hanna-Attisha noticed lead poisoning among patients, a generation of children were stricken. Medical treatment was $100 million; fixing and replacing the outdated pipes: $1.5 billion. Even where lead is not present, other dangerous heavy metals can be released. Anti-corrosion products are available, and the New Orleans has called a public works meeting to plan a corrosion monitoring program.
One option? Bottled water. Image: “Lots of bottled water” by photographer Nrbelex, 2006. Creative commons 2.0. Included with appreciation.
New Orleans, and the communities in southeast Louisiana, can take action now, before it is too late. But what are the options? Like the people in Flint, families can purchase bottled water. A suburb of Nola, Metaire (whose interchange of I-10/I-610 is subject to flooding) reported sales of 2,000 bottles of water daily. In New Orleans, large institutions needing water, like hospitals, were stockpiling in advance. Maybe it could be a short-term option, but it’s an environmental and health risk – over one million plastic bottles of water are sold globally – every minute! Studies reveal water from plastic bottles leaches microplastics into the human system. And then there’s the reality that very few plastic water bottles are recycled, with most ending up in landfills, river, and oceans. Bottled water is not a long-term answer.
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers built a sill and can improve that structure. Image: “Sill” by graphic artist Meninanatureza, 2021. Creative commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.
What about macro solution? In July 2023, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers placed a “sill” in the Mississippi River as a kind of barrier to influx of salt water from the Gulf. Now, plans are in process to raise the sill barrier by 25 feet (7.62 meters). But even at the new height, the project will only delay the inevitable by 10 or so days. Another large-scale option is building a pipe to bring fresh water from upstream. It’s like what China did with the Grand Canal – bringing water from the south to the north – but in reverse. Possible, but expensive, and not a guarantee that enough fresh water will be available in the upper river if drought conditions persist.
The MIT desalination device is the size of a suitcase. Image: “Belber Vintage Striped Suitcase,” by photographer Sandrine Z, 2014. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.
One further option, especially if saltwater continues to flow from the Gulf of Mexico, is new desalination technology developing at MIT. The Device Research Laboratory’s Lenan Zhang and Yang Zhong, along with Evelyn Wang and team, working with Shanghai Jiao Tong University and the National Science Foundation of China, announced development of a system the size of a suitcase that can filter high-salinity water, delivering 1.32 gallons (5 liters) of drinking and cooking water per hour. It can be installed at households, and is free from electricity, running on solar power. The system is new design that solves the formerly-intractable problem of salt buildup that clogs many desalination devices. Overall, the cost of delivering drinking water is cheaper than tap water. In a feat of biomimicry, the device by thermohaline processes – (temperature “thermo” + salinity “haline”) – just like the waves of the ocean. (Chu 2023).
Mangrove leaves can excrete salt. Image: “Avicenna germinans – salt excretion” by photographer Ulf Mehlig. Creative commons 2.5. Included with appreciation.
Or where suitable, there is the mangrove. This coastal plant can thrive in salty environments and may even act as a filter; some mangrove leaves are able to excrete salt. Mangrove trees can help to regulate salinity: they thrive in the intertidal zones where salt and fresh water mix. Avicenna officinalis (see above) is one of the salt-secretors; this mangrove tree has evolved salt glands in the tissues that release salt.
There are more than 500 port cities endangered by saltwater intrusions; it is a challenge offering scalable innovation. Image: “Earth-Globespin” by NASA, 2015 Public Domain. Included with appreciation.
Will New Orleans serve as a case example? Other salt water wedges can be found in the estuaries of the rivers including the Columbia River of Oregon and Washington states, or the Hudson in New York. And, saltwater intrusions are not restricted to the United States. The Po River in Italy suffered damage in the Po Plain where salt water from the Adriatic entered the freshwater river: drainage from agricultural land worsened the salinization process. In Bangladesh, southwestern coastal regions are also threatened by saltwater intrusions causing soil damage and compromising drinking water: cyclones and storm surges exacerbate the threat. Seawater intrusion is now a major problem worldwide: it even has its own acronym (SWI). Alarmingly, 32% of world coastal cities are threatened by saltwater intrusion: 500 cities are in urgent danger.
“Tina Turner,” by photographer Les Zg, 1990. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.
As you consider the Mississippi’s present problems and possible solutions, you might like to reflect upon some of the many songs written about the legendary river. For a sample, including songs about the original and first nation people who live there, explore Mississippi River music, click here. Or, listen to Russell Batiste, Jr., to Johnny Cash’s “Big River,” and Ike and Tina Turner’s version of “Proud Mary.”
Brooke, K. Lusk. “Leaking or Lacking?” pages 5 – 14. Renewing the World: Casebook for Leadership in Water. 2023. ISBN: 9798985035933. https://renewingtheworld.com
Coo, Tianzheng, Dongmei Han, Xianfang Song. “Past, present, and future of global seawater intrusion research: A bibliometric analysis.” 27 August 2021. Journal of Hydrology. Volume 603, Part A, December 2021, 126844. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/articleabs/pii/S0022169421008945
Fortin, Jacey, and Colbi Edmonds. “Battling a Water Crisis: Bottles, Barges, and Maybe a Quarter Billion-Dollar Pipe.” 29 September 2023. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/29/us/new-orleans-saltwater-intrusion.html
LaPotin, Alina, et al., “Dual-stage atmospheric water harvesting device for scalable solar-driven water production.” 20 January 2021. Joule. Volume 5, Issue 1, pages 166-182.
Somssich, Marc. “How a Mangrove Tree Can Help to Improve the Salt Tolerance of Arabidopsis and Rice.” 14 December 2020. Plant Physiology 184(4): 1630-1632. PMID: 33277332. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7723112/
And it’s only gotten worse since: 2023 is a critical year to determine the future of the Colorado River. Image: “Drought: before and after.” Photo, United States National Park Service. Wikimedia creative commons public domain. Included with appreciation.
Sharing water is one of the oldest bonds of community. Ancient villages centered around the well; urban settlements like Rome were built near rivers; great cities and civilizations began as ports.
“Rome: A view of the river Tiber looking south with the Castel Sant’Angelo and Saint Peter’s Basilica beyond” by Rudolf Wiegmann, 1834. Wikimedia, public domain. Included with appreciation.
But when neighboring communities are seven large states, the water is the Colorado River, and drought conditions are straining resources: sharing is proving difficult. Camille Touton, Commissioner of the US Bureau of Reclamation, official manager of the river, recently ordered Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming to cut 1/3rd of their water usage. Encouraging states to figure it out amicably, Touton warned that if no solution were soon agreed, the federal government would settle the score. The matter is urgent: the Colorado River provides water for drinking and irrigation for 40 million people. Moreover, if Colorado River reservoirs Lake Mead and Lake Powell reach ‘dead pool’ the Hoover Dam will not supply electricity.
Colorado River: Upper and Lower Basin States. Image from USGS data by Shannon1. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.
The Law of the River, a 100-year compendium of laws regulating the Colorado River from inception of the Compact in 1922 to 2022 (and now continuing), is both history and future. As farmers claimed more water to grow food to feed a nation, and as cities like Los Angeles and Las Vegas burgeoned in population, dueling needs competed for resources. Add drought and the arguments became more heated.
Las Vegas gets drinking water and electricity from the Colorado River. Image: “Las Vegas by Night, 2019” by Notdjey. Creative commons 2.0. Included with appreciation.
The Colorado River will affect water policy in the United States, Compact partners of Mexico and the original American Sovereign Nations, but around the world. One third of all the rivers and lakes globally are facing drought. Rivers like the Amazon, Indus, Nile, Po, Rhine, and Yangtze, among others, will debate similar decisions.
“Confluence of Indus and Zanskar Rivers” by Bernard Gagnon, 2018. Creative commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.
Rivers support agriculture, drinking water, fish and marine life, barge traffic, and hydroelectricity. How should stakeholders work together to decide who gets water and why?
Interested in how Colorado River decisions will affect other rivers worldwide? Click here.
Rare earth elements are needed to power smartphones, and many other technologies. Image: “Foldable smartphones” by Ka Kit Pang. Wikimedia creative commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.
Smart phones are common but so-called “earths” that power these devices are rare. In fact, 17 elements termed rare earth elements or REEs supply everything from phones to electric vehicles, wind turbines, and military systems. That glowing light on your car dashboard? Rare earth chemistry in action.
“Rare earth oxides” by photographer, Peggy Greb. United States Department of Agriculture. Public Domain. Wikimedia. Included with appreciation.
Rare earths are obtained by mining, combined with extraction processing, because these oxides are not found in neat deposits but rather mixed in with other elements. REE mining is a specialty sector. China, land of the Grand Canal, is currently the world leader: both in mining and extracting, controlling 60% of the market. Recently innovations in rare earth element recycling could promote reuse and reduce mining.
“Rare earth oxides production graph” by D.J. Cordier, Haxel, et al., United States Geological Survey, 2013. Wikimedia. Public Domain. Included with appreciation.
Most rare earth elements used in Europe are imported. But, recently, mining company LKAB found more than one million tons of rare earth oxides in the far northern area of Kiruna. Sweden will have a ready market. However, it will be at least a decade before permitting, mining, and processing will reach European smart devices.
Sámi land and water resources are involved in rare earth mining. Image: “Three Sámi women” circa 1890. Wikimedia, public domain. Included with appreciation.
Sweden will have a nearby partner: the Northvolt battery factory is in development. Also in Sweden’s north: projects for green steel. Meanwhile, LKAB has been busy: in order to reach the deposit, the entire town of Kiruna had to be moved. There is also consideration of the Sámi people of northern Scandinavia who herd reindeer over the lands of Finland, Norway, Sweden, and the Kola Peninsula of what is now Russia, these are lands to which the Sámi have indigenous rights. Sámi once transported mined ore via reindeer to deliver material to the coast for shipping. A “cultivation line” was established by law to project Sámi herding lands, but conflicts and differences remain.
“Perite” by photographer David Hospital, wikimedia creative commons 3.0. The mineral is named after Per Adolf Geijer. Image included with appreciation.
Sweden’s newly discovered deposit now has a name: Per Geijer. It’s an homage to Per Adolf Geijer (1886-1976), Swedish geologist who also has a mineral, discovered in Sweden, named after him: perite.
The rare earth element market is expected to grow, estimated to be worth $9.6 billion by 2026. In the midst of this acceleration, mining rare earth elements can affect soil and groundwater, creating acidic conditions. How can rights to rare earth elements be protected, explored, and – when mined – shared? How should land and groundwater affected by rare earth mining be restored and renewed?
Bai, Jingling, et al., “Evaluation of resource and environmental carrying capacity in rare earth mining areas in China.” Scientific Reports, Nature. 12, Article number: 6105 (2022). https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-10105-2
