ENERGY: Coal – Cashing in the Carbon Legacy

Posted on February 3, 2026February 1, 2026 by Building The World

Coal powered the Industrial Revolution and the world we inherited. As we phase out coal (it’s a finite resource), we can still cash in — on its infrastructure. There are 15,000 coal mining and processing facilities globally, with over 6,000 key mines owned by 4,900 owners. Global Coal Mine Tracker (FCMT) reported that coal may have reached its historic peak in 2024 with 8.7 billion tonnes, mainly used to generate electricity. If all existing and planned coal-fired power plants continued to operate, coal alone would cause a 317% overshoot of the Paris Agreement’s carbon “budget.”

Problems

“Jharia Coal Mine” by TripodStories, 2014. Creative Commons 4.0. With appreciation.

Mining – Excavating for coal damages land and water resources, endangering workers and communities. Subsidence and toxic waste are the dangers leftovers.

“Power plants USA Air Pollutants” by Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2017. Public Domain.

Burning – Combusting coal releases arsenic, carbon dioxide, chromium, nitrogen oxides, mercury, heavy metals, and particulate matter result in smog, acid rain, and heart and lung diseases. Coal produced 81% of CO₂ added to Earth’s atmosphere since 1870, and causes 40% of world emissions annually.

“Coal Combustion Wastes” by GroundTruth. 2024, Creative Commons 3.0. With appreciation.

Coal Ash – Once burned, coal leaves behind clumps of arsenic, chromium, lead, and mercury. Coal ash, when inhaled, causes respiratory irritation, liver damage, and cancer. Coal ash, when stored in ponds, endangers both surface and ground water. But coal ash is not all problems. In fact, it is a source of one of the most urgent and valuable needs of the new energy era – rare earths.

Solutions, Innovations, and Opportunities: Cashing in Carbon’s Legacy

Coal mines have deep shafts that can house gravity batteries. Permits have already been obtained; shafts are already dug and reinforced. Old coal = new energy. “Energy Storage – renewable energy” by RCraig09, 2024. Creative Commons 4.0. With appreciation.

Gravity battery: Coal mines’ deep shafts, already dug, can house blocks of sand, rock, concrete or other heavy mass, for energy storage and deployment. Energy Vault and Gravitricity identified hundreds of closed coal mines suitable for gravity storage. Energy Vault, now building in Texas, installed a gravity battery in Italy in a former coal mine in Sardinia. Carbosulcis SpA began closing the coal mine, Italy’s largest, in 2014. But what to do with the impressive infrastructure, its underground tunnels, and vertical shafts? Gravity storage needs steep vertical access to work with the exchange of potential and kinetic energy: the Sardinian coal mine brought new life to old infrastructure, and preserved economic activity in the area. Energy Vault, on 6 January 2026, began building the SOSA Energy Center in Texas as part of the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT) that operates 90% of that state’s electric capability. Energy Vault acquired the project from Savion, a Shell Group company. Supported by Orion Infrastructure Capital, Energy Vault’s SOSA Energy Center LLC will begin commercial operations in Q2 2027. It is the first project under Energy Vault’s Asset Vault investment program. Another company repurposing coal mines for gravity energy storage: Green Gravity (privately held) of Australia.

Cashing in:

Energy Vault Holdings, Inc. – New York Stock Exchange: NRGV

Green Gravity – Investors include HMC Capital – Australian Stock Exchange – HMC

Brookfield Renewable Partners, L P. – New York Stock Exchange: BEP

“Hydro power station at Snowy.” by Joe “velojo,” 2007. Creative Commons 3.0. with appreciation.

Pumped hydro: Coal mines are prone to flooding, as Newcomen observed. Can retired coal mines be used for pumped hydro? This form of stored energy needs steep descents to power turbines generating electricity. Australia’s Snowy Hydro 2.0 is building reversible turbines to pump water back and forth over turbines, reusing the same water. Lewis Ridge in Kentucky is working with Rye Development turning a former coal mine into pumped hydro storage. In 2026, Rye secured a 40-year license for closed-loop pumped hydro for the Goldendale Energy Storage project in Washington State on the site of the former Columbia Gorge Aluminum smelter. While Rye is private and Snowy is government-owned, other pumped hydro companies that are publicly include:

Cashing in:

Hydro One Limited – Toronto Stock Exchange: H.TO

Drax Group PLC– London Stock Exchange: DRX

Iberdrola SA – Bolsas y Mercados Españoles: IBE

General Electric – New York Stock Exchange: GE

Siemens Energy AG – Frankfurt Stock Exchange: ENR1n

“Principles of Geothermal Energy” by Siemens, 2009. Creative Commons 3.0. with appreciation.

Geothermal: Coal mines plunge close to the heat of geothermal energy. When flooded with water using heat pump technologies, mine water heating can use existing mines for new energy. In the UK, 25% of residential homes sit atop coalfields. In the US, Pittsburgh’s coal seam holds one trillion gallons of warm mine water. Canada pioneered the technology in Springhill, Nova Scotia, tapping water that had flooded a coal mine. Gradiant Geothermal Inc., formed when Transitional Energy LLC and X Machina Sustainable Technologies Inc. combined, taps closed oil and gas wells for geothermal. X Machina Capital Strategies acquires oil and gas assets near the end of life and then turns them into renewable energy sources, yielding both energy and carbon credits. While some start-ups are privately financed, many public companies are investing in geothermal. Calpine Energy Solutions was the US largest generator of electricity from geothermal (and natural gas): in 2026, Constellation bought it. Halliburton is applying known oil and gas extraction technologies to geothermal. For investors who prefer only renewable energy sources, these companies may not be suitable. But it is a sign of the energy transition that major fossil fuel companies are pursuing renewables. Ormat, however, is focused only on renewable energy. Established in Yavne, Israel and now headquartered in Nevada, Ormat began with turbine development, advanced to solar power, then added recovered energy. Ormat is traded on stock exchanges in Israel and the US. Here are some links that may be of interest to geothermal investors.

Cashing in:

Baker Hughes Company – Nasdaq: BKR

BP – New York Stock Exchange: BP

Constellation – Nasdaq: CEG

Eversource – New York Stock Exchange: ES

Halliburton -New York Stock Exchange: HAL

Ormat Technologies – New York Stock Exchange: ORA

“Rare Earth Oxides” by Peggy Greb, photographer, USDA, 2015. Public Domain with appreciation.

Coal Ash and Rare Earths: Coal ash holds a higher percentage of rare earth elements than can be found generally in Earth’s crust because these elements get concentrated during combustion and end up in ash. US coal ash may hold 11 million tons of rare earths. The US Department of Energy’s National Technolog Laboratory (NETL) is extracting rare earths from coal fly ash in Wyoming. Companies are starting to sift through mine tailings and coal ash to recover these valuable mineral. Chinese companies and state enterprises dominate the rare earths market, mainly by virgin mining; but a few sift tailings. For example, China Northern Rare Earth Group uses iron ore tailings in the Bayan Obo deposit, and Ziamen Tungsten also uses tailings. Here are some options:

Cashing in:

China Northern Rare Earth (Group) Ltd – Shanghai Stock Exchange: SSE: 600111

Envirogold Global – Canadian Securities Exchange: NVRO

Phoenix Tailings – private with some accredited investor access pre-IPO

Physical Sciences, Inc. – private with employee ownership plan

Ramaco Resources – Nasdaq: METC and METCB

Xiamen Tungsten Co., Ltd. – Shanghai Stock Exchange: SHA: 600549

Brayton Point, former coal-fired power plant, now transmits wind energy to Massachusetts, using the same facility and grid connections. “Brayton Point Power Station” 2007 by Wikimster97commons. Creative Commons 3.0 with appreciation.

Repurposing: Decommissioning fossil fuel infrastructure causes economic dislocation; repurposing keeps local employment and businesses thriving, while providing new, clean energy. Repurposing coal-fired power plants for new forms of energy transmission, like the Brayton Point project in Massachusetts, can reuse existing permits for new revenues. World Bank found that decommissioning a coal plant costs $58 million; repurposing brings in $122 million.

Energy Vault. “Changing People’s Lives through Innovation.” 2024. https://www.energyvault.com/newsroom/changing-peoples-lives-through-innovation

Global Energy Monitor. “Lewis Ridge Pumped Storage Hydroelectric Plant.” 2026. https://www.gem.wiki/Lewis_Ridge_Pumped_Storage_hydroelectric_plant

Huntsdale, Justin and Brooke Chandler. “Green Gravity secures old coal mine shaft to test gravity energy storage.” 18 September 2025. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2025-09-19/green-gravity-deal-old-mine-shaft-gravitational-energy-storage/105782756

Kennedy, Ryan. “Energy Vault begins construction on 150 MW storage project in Texas.” 6 January 2026. PV Magazine. https://pv-magazine-usa.com/2026/01/06/energy-vault-begins-construction-on-150-mw-storage-project-in-texas/

Lane Report. “Ky coal firm selling $200M in stock to ramp up US rare earth production.” 6 August 2025. Lane Report. https://www.lanereport.com/182885/2025/08/ky-coal-firm-selling-200m-in-stock-to-ramp-up-u-s-rare-earth-production/

Olick, Diana. “Abandoned coal mines may be gold mines for geothermal energy.” 8 May 2023. CNBC. https://cnb.cx/3B6CJVa

Nova Scotia, Canada. “Springhill geothermal built in abandoned coal plant.” https://novascotia.ca/geothermal-energy/

The Energy Group. “How Coal Mine Geothermal Energy Works.” https://www.theenergy.coop/blog/spotlight-on-renewable-energy-technology-coal-mine-geothermal-energy/

Tisheva, Plamena. “Energy Vault breaks ground on 150-MW battery in Texas.” 5 January 2025. Renewables Now. https://renewablesnow.com/news/energy-vault-breaks-ground-on-150-mw-battery-in-texas-1287536/

World Bank. “Repurposing versus decommissioning coal-fired power plants.” https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/144181629878602689/pdf/Coal-Plant-Repurposing-for-Ageing-Coal-Fleets-in-Developing-Countries-Technical-Report.pdf

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

CITIES: Landscapes and Dreamscapes

Posted on January 19, 2026 by Building The World

“I Have A Dream” Martin Luther King Jr. address from Lincoln Memorial, 1963. Courtesy: US Marine Corps, public domain.

When Martin Luther King delivered a speech that would ring throughout history, “I Have a Dream,” he did so on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial, in the nation’s capital. King’s words echoed those of Abraham Lincoln, who proposed and signed the Emancipation Proclamation. All joining Reverend King assembled in a gathering that stretched from the Lincoln Memorial to the Washington Monument. It was exactly the kind of public gathering envisioned by the founders who supported demonstrations and assembly in a city perhaps based on the wide spaces of Paris.

L’Enfant’s map of 1791 for the new capital of Washington, DC. Image: Norman B. Leventhal Map Center. Creative Commons 2.0.

There is a connection between the cities of Washington, DC, US and Paris, France. When George Washington engaged engineer Pierre Charles L’Enfant in 1791 to map out a new city, the plan was based on the open boulevards of Paris, L’Enfant’s original home before he left to join the US Continental Army’s Corps of Engineers. However, by 1792, a problem erupted and L’Enfant fled town, with the drawings.

Benjamin Banneker’s statue at National Museum of African American History and Culture, Washington, DC. By photographer Frank Schulenburg. Creative Commons 4.0.

Enter Benjamin Banneker, mathematician, astronomer, almanac author, and surveyor with an apparently photographic memory. Banneker had been engaged by Major Andrew Ellicott to survey the land intended for the new capital. Banneker recalled every aspect of L’Enfant’s design, particularly the location of monuments, public art, and common ground for gatherings between the official buildings of government. It can be noted that Banneker and King shared a vision, and some background: both hailed from African-American heritage. Both are honored in the National Museum of African American History and Culture – in Washington.

Brasilia, new capital in the shape of an airplane, is the first city designed to be seen from the air. Photo of drawing: Uri Rosenheck. With appreciation. Creative Commons 3.0

Cities, especially capitals, have a unique role: they are more than an urban conglomerate. In fact, capitals are living public art. For example, when Brazil moved its capital from coastal Rio de Janeiro to the center of the country, the nation gave a new name, Brasilia, to its new heart. Recognizing a new era in global perspective and transport, Brasilia was build in the shape of an airplane, the first city designed to be viewed from the air.

Ganges Delta, world’s largest. The confluence of rivers Ganges and Brahmaputra makes Bangladesh one of the world’s capitals most vulnerable to sea rise. Image: NASA, 2020. Public Domain.

With rising seas, we may see the rebuilding of coastal cities. Many ancient centers were ports. Indonesia is moving its capital from Jakarta to Borneo to become Nusantara. Nigeria moved its capital from coastal Lagos to central Abuja. Important cities like Bangkok, threatened by subsidence increased by heavy skyscrapers and a burgeoning population consuming groundwater resources, might strengthen the Thailand Ground Water Act of 1977. Dhaka, Bangladesh, sinking at a rate of 0.55 inches (1.4 centimeters) might need to take actions. Boston, Massachusetts, is one of many coastal cities from Miami to New Orleans, that might change the architecture of the US coastline.

Will Sea Level Rise prompt the redesign of coastal cities? Image: “Boston and Boston Harbor” by photographer Nick Allen, 2015. Creative commons 4.0. With appreciation.

If you could redesign Boston, or a city of your choice ready for a new vision, how would you create a city that is both landscape and – in honor of Martin Luther King, Jr. – dreamscape?

Keene, Louis. “Benjamin Banneker.” https://www.whitehousehistory.org/benjamin-banneker

King, Martin Luther, Jr. “I Have a Dream.” 28 August 1963. https://youtu.be/vP4/Y1TtS3s

National Museum of African American History and Culture. https://nmaahc.si.edu

Rosane, Olivia. “8 world cities that could be underwater as oceans rise.” 5 October 2018. EcoWatch. https://www.ecowatch.com/cities-vulnerable-sea-level-rise-2610208792.html.

Thailand. “Ground Water Act of 1977.” http://www.dgr.go.th/en/about/391

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

ENERGY: Reshaping (and Cashing in) the Carbon Legacy

Posted on January 13, 2026January 12, 2026 by Building The World

Time to reshape the carbon legacy. Image: “Transformation” by TED-43, 2018. Creative Commons 3.0. With appreciation.

New year, new vision. While some countries are doubling down on fossil fuels, most of the world is be moving away from carbon energy. The energy revolution is reshaping the world. There are three reasons.

Supply is running out. Image: “Hourglass” by Strongbad1982, dedicated in 2016 to the public domain. With appreciation.

Supply – we will run out of fossil fuels. For example, coal. The world has about 1 trillion metric tons of proven coal reserves. If we continue to burn coal at our present rate of consumption, that’s about 150 years – tops. Oil? 56 years. Natural gas? 52 years. (Energy Institute 2025)

“Global Warming and Extreme Weather” by Efbrazil, 2021. Creative Commons 4.0. With appreciation.

Climate Change – no one intended to cause droughts and wildfires, storms and floods, health care problems, and economic pain. When the first miners dug coal or pioneering drillers discovered oil gushers so powerful they spewed “liquid gold” for nine days straight before tapering to a steady flow, the intention was progress and energy for all. But in the year just completed, global warming increased to 1.48C above pre-industrial levels, greenhouse gas emissions rose to record highs, and, in the US, climate-related weather disasters caused over $115 billion in damage. The last decade, 2015-2025, recorded the warmest years in historical observational record.

“Renewable Energy Collage” by OI-B-i.fernandez02, 2010. Creative Commons 3.0. With appreciation.

Renewable Energy Innovations – in response to the above factors, renewable energy technologies have surged in innovation and optimization. Now, 91% of all renewable energy projects are cheaper than fossil fuel options. For example, solar power: 41% cheaper than fossil fuels; onshore wind, 53% cheaper, according to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA 2025).

“Trans-Alaska Pipeline,” US Department of Interior, 2007. Public Domain. With appreciation.

What will happen to all those old coal mines, drilled oil and gas wells, pipelines, fossil-fuel power plants? Could there be economic benefit in reshaping, reusing, and repurposing carbon infrastructure? Yes. Reusing a coal mine, for gravity-based energy generation and storage, could yield five times more economic benefit than simply incurring the costs to close and remediate the land. Decommissioning a coal mine: $206 million in COST. Repurposing: $1,180 billion in BENEFIT.

Carbon infrastructure can move from closing expense to repurposing benefit with revenue. Image: “Unbalanced scales” by Chris Martin, 2006. Public Domain. With appreciation.

In this new series, we’ll take a look at innovations for reshaping, repurposing, and cashing in on the carbon legacy. First up, coal…

Energy Institute. “Statistical Review of World Energy.” 2026. https://www.energyinst.org/statistical-review

International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). “91% of New Renewable Projects Now Cheaper Than Fossil Fuels Alternatives.” 22 July 2024. https://www.irena.org/News/pressreleases/2025/Jul/91-Percent-of-New-Renewable-Projects-Now-Cheaper-Than-Fossil-Fuels-Alternatives#:~:text=In%202024%20solar%20photovoltaics%20(PV),wind%20projects%20were%2053%25%20cheaper.

Jindal, Abhinav, and Gireesh Shrimali. “Cost-benefit analysis of coal plant repurposing in developing countries: A case study of India.” Energy Policy, Volume 164, May 2022, 112911. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301421522001367

Lumley, Graham. “Are we running out of fossil fuels?” January 2025. BKV Energy. https://bkvenergy.com/learning-center/running-out-of-fossil-fuels/

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

KWANZAA: 7 Days to a Better New Year

Posted on December 26, 2025 by Building The World

Kwanzaa calls us to light a candle to dedicate each day to a principle, preparing for the New Year. Graphic by Nesnad, 2008, dedicated to the public domain. With appreciation.

Time system dedications are a hallmark of human culture. Ancient names for days of the week may remind us that Sunday was originally honored the sun (and Monday, the moon). Now, a more recent sequence invites practice of seven principles for a good life through community. Kwanzaa, observed from December 26 to January 1 calls us to a special cultural celebration.

Pan African Flag created 13 August, 1920 by Marcus Garvey and UNIA, first displayed in Madison Square Garden, NY, USA. Public Domain, with appreciation.

Developed by Dr. Maulana Karenga, Kwanzaa is named for a Swahili phrase “Matunda ya kwanza” after first fruit celebrations, a part of both ancient and modern African culture. Honored by candles, gifts, and display of the colors of the Pan-African flag in red, black, and green, seven principles (Nguzo Saba) mark seven days:

UMOJA (Unity)

KUJICHAGUIA (Self-Determination)

UJIMA (Collective Work and Responsibility)

UJAMAA (Cooperative Economics)

NIA (Purpose)

KUUMBA (Creativity)

IMANI (Faith)

“Seven” by sculptor Robert Indiana, now located at the Portland Museum of Art. Photography by losmininos, 2006, Creative Commons 2.0; with appreciation.

As 2025 turns our collective gaze towards the future, how can you dedicate the next seven days to the seven Kwanzaa principles, leading to a better 2026?

Karenga, Maulana. The African American Holiday of Kwanzaa: A Celebration of Family, Community & Culture. Los Angeles: University of Sankore Press, 2018. ISBN-10: 0943412099

Karenga, Maulana. California State University Long Beach. https://www.csulb.edu/college-of-liberal-arts/africana-studies/page/maulana-karenga

National Museum of African American History and Culture. “Kwanzaa: First Fruits.” https://nmaahc.si.edu/explore/moments/kwanzaa

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

SPACE: Trash Talk

Posted on December 16, 2025December 15, 2025 by Building The World

Space debris in low earth orbit by NASA, 2005. Public Domain.

Want to talk trash? Look up. More than 25,000 pieces of defunct satellites, odd parts lost in extra-vehicular activity, bolts that floated off while repairing the International Space Station (ISS), are circling the Earth. And those are just the larger chunks (more than 4 inches in diameter). Go small and you go big: with 100,000,000 tiny but powerful bits flying at 17,000 mph (28,000 km). At that speed, even a paint chip could shatter a satellite – there are more than 8,000 of those in orbit, with 100,000 more planned by 2030.

More space objects, more danger of damage. Graphic: “Debris Object Evolution” by European Space Agency (ESA: A290134), 2017. Creative Commons 3.0.

Not long after the first satellite was launched in 1957 and COMSAT soon developed, the Kessler Syndrome, suggested by NASA scientists Donald J. Kessler and Burton G. Cour-Palais, reminded us that the more space objects we send into orbit, the more likely collisions will not just occur but pile up – the way a highway collision can create a multi-vehicle traffic jam. In space, such an event could cause outages of essential terrestrial communication systems.

Kessler Syndrome Image by NASA, Orbital Debris Program Office, Public Domain.

On Earth, we have become familiar with the “reuse-repurpose-recycle” paradigm. But in space, we tend to shoot stuff up there and leave it to eventually degrade. Enter Astroscale and other space repair and debris removal businesses that offer a new paradigm: “inspect-service-remove.” Think of it as orbital road-service.

The 1967 Outer Space Treaty began the legal framework for space. Image: “Signing Outer Space Treaty 27 January 1967,” courtesy of ITU. Creative Commons 2.0.

Legal precedent will help to guide the process. The 1967 Outer Space Treaty mentioned liability for damage sustained in space. The 1972 Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects developed and presented a regulatory framework. In 1975, the Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space mandated launching States to keep track of, and take responsibility for, their orbiting technology. The Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee may provide regulatory options. Space Traffic Management (STM) is a new industry that will help launchers to clean up their orbits.

Space debris collisions could damage key satellite systems including GPS. Image: “Constellation Global Positioning System (GPS)” by El Pak, 2007. Public Domain, with appreciation.

Case Example: Astroscale. Founded in 2013 by Nobu Okada, Astroscale Holdings Inc (listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange as 186A) can service satellites in orbit, detecting potential problems and servicing devices while still operational. Beyond repair, the ADRAS-J can carry space junk safely out of orbit and return it to earth, where materials recycling may prove valuable. To make servicing easier, Astroscale manufactures a docking plate that enables in-orbit servicing and controlled removal, when needed.

Space and orbital break-ups can occur when satellites may explode. Image: “Space Break Up ESA375611,” European Space Agency (ESA) 2017. Creative Commons 3.0.

In 2027, NewSpace India Limited (NSIL) and India’s Department of Space will launch In-situ Space Situational Awareness–Japan1 from the Satish Dhawan Space Center. The mission will inspect two large space debris objects now in orbit. In 2025, Astroscale received US Patent number 12,234,043 B2 for “Method and System for Multi-Object Space Debris Removal.”

**Space Services and Debris Removal will be a profitable new field**. Image: “New” b Neji, 2009. Creative Commons 3.0

NEW LEADERS in SPACE DEBRIS SERVICES include these companies. Some financial professionals note that while the satellite businesses has many entrants, space servicing and debris removal is an emerging market that will grow. Many of these new enterprises are at the private investment stage; when public, stock information is listed below:

Airbus. https://www.airbus.com Paris (AIR.PA) US OTC (EADSY)

Altius (subsidiary, Voyager). https://voyagertechnologies.com NYSE: VOYG

Artificial Brain. https://artificialbrain.in

Astroscale Holdings. https://astroscale.com/en Tokyo (186A)

Bull. https://bull-space.com

ClearSpace. https://clearspace.today/

D-Orbit. https://www.dorbit.space

Delta Infinite. https://www.delta-infinite.com

Digantara. https://www.diganara.co.in

iSEE. https://isee-space.ai

Kurs Orbital. https://kursorbital.com

LeoLabs. https://leolabs.space

Lockheed Martin. https://www.lockheedmartin.com NYSE: LMT

Northrup Grumman. https://www.northopgrumman.com NYSE: NOC

Orbit Guardians Corporation. https://orbitguardians.com

Orbital Lasers. https://www.orbitallasers.com

Paladin Space. https://www.paladinspace.com

Rocket Lab. https://rocketlabcorp.com NASDAQ (RKLB)

Space Cowboy. https://spacecowboy.today

Spaceflux. https://spaceflux.io

New materials for space may help to avoid future space debris. For example, satellites made of wood. Enter LIGNOSAT by JAXA and NASA. Image NASA, 2024. Public Domain.

While space traffic management enterprises address already orbiting older designs, aerospace engineers are calling for more recyclable materials and devices. SpaceX pioneered reusable launch rockets. Now, more entrants are offering options.

JAXA’s LignoSat is made from Japanese Magnolia wood. Image: “LignoSat Detail” by Koichi Wakata, JAXA. Public Domain with appreciation.

JAXA/NASA astronaut Dr. Takao Doi, now a professor at Kyoto University, developed a satellite made of wood. LignoSat, biodegradable, can bypass the danger stage when re-entering Earth’s atmosphere. LignoSat is an example of a growing movement towards better materials for space.

The International Space Station (ISS) was built from 1998 to 2011: the process of its construction is summarized in this video. Plans are to retire, and let ISS splash down in the Pacific. But, why not use ISS for new purposes in space? Image: NASA, 2011. Public Domain.

But for larger space installations, there may be possibilities for reuse. Why not repurpose outdated space stations? The International Space Station will close in 2030. It took from 1998 to 2011 to construct and refine (see above video). The current plan is to let ISS crash into the Pacific Ocean. Any better ideas?

Astroscale. VIDEO. https://www.astroscale.com/en/missions/adras-j

Brooke, K. Lusk. “SPACE: Wood – Satellite Innovation.” 3 December 2024. Building the World Blog. https://blogs.umb.edu/buildingtheworld/2024/12/03/space-wood-satellite-innovation/

Cavalier, Andrew. “Launching Into the Future of Satellite Technology with SpaceX’s Reusable Rockets.” 13 December 2024. ABiresearch. https://www.abiresearch.com/blog/future-of-satellite-technology-spacex-reusable-rockets

European Union. “Commission consults experts on design of STM voluntary measures.” 17 September 2025. EU Defence Industry and Space. https://defence-industry-space.ec.europa.eu/commission-consults-experts-design-stm-voluntary-measures-2025-09-17_en

Horack, John M. “NASA will say goodbye to the International Space Station in 2030.” 13 October 2025. https://theconversation.com/nasa-will-say-goodbye-to-the-international-space-station-in-2030-and-welcome-in-the-age-of-commercial-space-stations-264936

Jah, Moriba. “Why We Need to Reduce, Reuse and Recycle in Space.” 21 January 2025. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-space-junk-crisis-needs-a-recycling-revolution/

Kessler, Donald J. and Burton G. Cour-Palais. “Collision frequency of artificial satellites: The creation of a debris belt.” June 1978. Journal of Geophysical Research, Volume 83, Issue A6, pages 2637-2646. http://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978JGR….83.2637K/abstract

Koerth, Maggie. “How should we deal with space junk? Space recycling, of course” 8 December 2025. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2025/12/08/climate/space-junk-recycling-sustainability-satellites

Lloyd, Andrea. “JAXA’s First Wooden Satellite Deploys from Space Station.” 7 January 2025. NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/image-article-jaxas-first-wooden-satellite-deploys-from-space-station/

NASA. “Orbital Debris Program Office,” Astromaterials Research & Exploration Science. 2025. https://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/faq/

Tamanna, Yasmin. “10 Top Space Debris Removal Companies to Watch in 2025.” 19 February 2025. StartUs Insights. https://www.startus-insights.com/innovators-guie/space-debris-removal-companies/

United Nations University. “Interconnected Disaster Risks: 5 Things You Should Know about Space Debris.” 26 February 2024. https://unu.edu/ehs/series/5-things-you-should-know-about-space-debris

Yang, Zhilin, et al., “Resource and material efficiency in the circular space economy.” 1 December 2025. Chem Circularity. https://www.cell.com/chem-circularity/fulltxt/S3051-2948(25)00001-5

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

ENERGY/TRANSPORT: Driving Critical Minerals

Posted on November 11, 2025December 22, 2025 by Building The World

Critical minerals are driving geopolitics, and they are also driving right in your car or cellphone. Recycle your rechargeable batteries. Image: Patrhoue, true-world.com, 2009. Public Domain, with appreciation.

Drive your EV straight into the future. Answer the call to renew energy with your cellphone. Mind, don’t mine.

Between a rock, and a hard place. Do we need mining to obtain critical – renewable – minerals? Image: “Rock/Mineral” by SemiletovaOlga, 2015. Creative Commons 4.0. With appreciation.

C0balt, copper, lithium, nickel – critical minerals are driving destructive mining (including impending deep seabed mining that may damage the marine environment). But what if we didn’t need to destroy land (and sea) with explosives? Or pollute groundwater with leaching chemicals? Or deal with toxic mine tailings? Or pressure sketchy trade agreements for critical minerals?

Critical minerals could transform energy, just as did the Hoover Dam. Photograph by Ansel Adams, 1941. National Archives #519837. Public domain, with appreciation.

One answer may be in the desert of Nevada, not far from the earlier energy innovation of the Hoover Dam, where a small company has a big idea. Strategic mission? Supply critical minerals needed for renewable energy by recycling batteries that power everything from cellphones to electric vehicles.

Original CTO at Tesla, Straubel founded Redwood to harvest critical minerals used in batteries. Photo by Rudolf Simon, 2013. Creative Commons 3.0, with appreciation.

Tesla co-founder Jeffrey B. Straubel opened Redwood Materials in 2017 with a belief that all those electric vehicles (EV) would soon need battery replacement. That would mean a new market for end-of-service batteries. While Redwood currently recycles many lithium-ion batteries that make up 90% of its business, and also old cellphones and e-waste, the prize is an EV battery because of its size. EV batteries yield $2,000 of value in metals – all in one convenient big package.

China is leading in recycling critical minerals, as well as their refining: keys to renewable energy. Image: Chinese Hall by Marroyo12. Creative Commons 2.0. With appreciation.

China, with leadership in critical minerals and renewable energy products like solar panels and wind turbines, is also first in battery recycling to yield minerals. With 50 plants devoted just to battery recycling, China currently recycles 20% of cobalt and nickel, 10% of lithium with a goal of 100% recycled battery materials by 2042. China also leads the world in EVs. Since the Grand Canal (still under expansion as world’s longest construction project), China has innovated transport. EVs are the latest.

Worldwide, if battery recycling advances, 30% of cobalt, lithium, and nickel could be obtained for new batteries by 2040, as gauged by Benchmark Mineral Intelligence, a London research firm covering markets for cobalt, copper, graphite, nickel, and lithium. Where does this leave climate deniers like the present US administration? Behind. Redwood Materials is growing, but many American battery recyclers still ship retrieved minerals to Asia for insertion into new batteries.

Investors and environmentalists, take note. By 2027, the battery recycling market is predicted to grow to $17 billion. Key battery recyclers include:

American Battery Technology Company https://americanbatterytechnology.com

Aqua Metals https://www.aquametals.com

Call2Recycle https://www.call2recycle.org

Cirba Solutions https://www.cirbasolutions.com

Exide https://www.exide.com

Glencore https://www.glencore.com

Gopher Resource https://www.gopherresource.com

Gravita India https://www.gravitaindia.com

Redwood Materials. https://www.redwoodmaterials.com

Umicore https://www.umicore.com

Is mining for minerals obsolete? It should be. Recycling batteries for minerals emits 58% less carbon and uses 72% less water than mining. Yes, it is inconvenient and expensive, but that’s an area for innovation with a big pay-off.

Driving renewal. Image: “NonUK Roundabout 8 Cars” by Mintguy/Fredrik et al. Creative Commons 3.0. With appreciation.

If you are an investor, explore battery recycling companies. If you have devices with rechargeable batteries, when your technology is ready for replacement, please recycle: some companies above provide website drop-off information. Use your power to drive a better future through battery recycling to reuse critical minerals and renew the world.

Benchmark Minerals Intelligence. https://www.benchmarkminerals.com

Grand View Research. “Battery Recycling Market (2024-2030).” https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/battery-recycling-market

Machala, Michael L., et al., “Life cycle comparison of industrial-scale lithium-ion battery recycling and mining supply chains.” 24 January 2025. Nature Communications 16, article 988 (2025). https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-56063-x

Redwood Materials. https://www.redwoodmaterials.com/

Rivero, Nicholás. “The best source of critical minerals is driving down U.S. streets.” 29 October, Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/people/nicol%C3%A1s-rivero/

Zhang, Ben, et al., “Lithium-ion battery recycling relieves the threat to material scarcity amid China’s electric vehicle ambitions.” Nature Communications 16, article number 6661 (2025). https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-61481-y

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

WATER: Coral – First Line of Danger or First Line of Defense

Posted on October 29, 2025October 29, 2025 by Building The World

Coral by Erin Rod. Creative Commons 4.0. With appreciation.

Our blue commons is in crisis, and coral may be among the first victims. Reports produced by 160 scientists confirm that 84% of the world’s coral reefs have suffered the worst bleaching event in history.

Coral Bleaching; NOAA. Public Domain, with appreciation.

Since 1998, there have been four major global bleaching events. In the period 2014-2017, two-thirds of all reefs were devastated. Now, the most recent bleaching event, begun in 2023, has damaged 84%, confirmed by the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI).

ICRI) launched at the 1994 Conference of the Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity now leads scientists from 100 countries in the quest to save coral. Why is coral so important?

Trigger Fish at coral reef, by Jan Dirk. Public domain, with appreciation.

Did you know that 25% of all marine species live on or near coral reefs? Some refer to coral reefs as ‘rainforests of the sea’ because of their role as habitat for diverse species. Because of the number of fish that visit coral reefs, these areas draw larger fish, helping to nourish marine species. Fishing industry economics depend upon coral environments.

Another economic benefit of coral reefs? Eco-tourism. The Great Barrier Reef in Australia contributes tourism revenues of A$6 billion annually. Moreover the reef and its associated activities employ 64,000 people welcoming over 2 million visits annually. There are some concerns about overtourism: there are now regulations governing anchoring, boat charters, and tourism platforms.

Finally, coral reefs protect coastlines, acting as buffers and breakwaters from storms. Waves wash over these living structures and dissipate, reducing the impact on nearby coastal areas.

The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network reports that this coral bleaching event, the worst in history, is directly related to warming ocean waters. Algae that live inside coral, and give the reefs their spectacular colors, are a food source of coral. Sustained warmth triggers algae’s release of toxins. Corals then reject the algae, with with nothing to eat, soon wither and die. The present global bleaching event is so severe that the Coral Reef Watch program, a department within the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), had to add new levels to its measurement system.

But, in the midst of all this bad news, there is a ray of hope. Coral can regenerate. Here are some spots of hope, to reference Dr. Sylvia Earle who advocates saving the ocean environment by preserving “hope spots.” Similarly, the High Seas Treaty contains provisions for marine protected areas (MPA). Can coral be saved, and in turn help to renew our blue commons?

Coral Restoration Foundation – planting and nurturing coral species in underwater nurseries allows coral to grow in ideal conditions. Using a breakthrough method called asexual reproduction, coral technologists can start with tiny pieces and nurture them to grow as big as a soccer pitch or football field in just one year. CRF calls the nursery facility the “Coral Tree.” Then, 75% of the new coral is harvested to replant in distressed reefs to spur the renewal process. The other 25% remans in the nursery to begin the process again. Located in Florida in Tavernier, near Key Largo, the Coral Restoration Foundation grew and restored 20,000 corals in 2024. The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary is the third largest barrier reef in the world. There are now over 1000 “Coral Trees” in three designs: Acroporid, Spiral, and Mega. Soon, CRF will launch nurseries in Barbados, Bonaire, Curacao, Jamaica, Mustique, and St. Lucia.

CRF collaborates with The Reef Institute in West Palm Beach and the Mote Marine Laboratory in Sarasota, Florida, USA. Other coral protection and regeneration centers may include the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, Australian Institute of Marine Science, Reef Research Centre, Great Barrier Reef Foundation, and Queensland’s “Reef 2050 Plan.”

Great Barrier Reef, courtesy of Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. Public Domain, with appreciation.

But just because coral can regenerate does not solve the problem. If new coral are planted in a distressed reef, no magic renewal will be sustainable unless the conditions causing the problem are also relieved. That means taking actions on ocean acidification and climate warming that is raising ocean temperatures. But coral larvae can help and ultimately may hold the answers we seek to save the oceans.

As the High Seas Treaty states, biological diversity is the key to preserving our blue commons. Because coral reefs are the foundation of marine ecosystems, they determine the state of the ocean and the state of life on the entire planet, which depends upon the ocean. Preserving, and regenerating, coral should be our first step in protecting marine health and renewing the world. See below, as observed by Copernicus satellite system, regenerating coral on the Great Barrier Reef. It is possible: can we act in time?

Advancing Earth and Space Sciences (AGU). “Warming Acidic Oceans May Nearly Eliminate Coral Reef Habitats by 2100.” 17 February 2020. https://news.agu.org/press-release/warming-acidic-oceans-may-nearly-eliminate-coral-reef-habitats-by-2100/

CNN. “Visiting Florida’s art-ificial reef trail.” 23 October 2025. VIDEO. https://www.cnn.com/2025/10/23/world/video/call-to-earth-florida-coral-reef-art-c3e-spc

Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL). https://coral.org

Coral Restoration Foundation (CRF). https://coralrestoration.org

Coral Reefs of the High Seas Coalition. https://highseasalliance.org

Gray, Jennifer. “Nurseries bring coral reefs back to life.” 7 July 2025. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2015/07/07/us/coral-reef-restoration-florida-keys

Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. https://www2.gbrmpa.gov.au

International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI). https://icriforum.org/about/

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

WATER: Our Blue Commons: High Seas Treaty

Posted on September 23, 2025September 22, 2025 by Building The World

“High Seas Trader” image from video game box. Creative Commons Fair Use. Included with appreciation.

What are the “high seas?” The expression came into being around 1350 ce, deriving from Old English heahflod or “deep water.” The high seas were out of reach, and often a place of maritime adventure, piracy, and danger. Later, the term defined the ocean area not within territory of any nation.

Ocean beyond 200 nautical miles is considered the “high seas” of international waters and belongs to everyone. It is our blue commons. Image: Kvasir, Creative Commons 3.0. With appreciation.

Ocean waters beyond 200 nautical miles, not subject to national jurisdiction and legally categorized as international waters, belong to every country, even those that are landlocked. This is our blue commons.

Wave graphic by NASA. Public Domain. With appreciation.

This month, September 2025, a new agreement, formally known as the “United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction,” is the first legally binding agreement for sustaining marine fauna and flora, sharing of scientific data , access to marine genetic resources, and creating marine protected areas (MPA).

“Marine Protected Areas” as of 2022. Will the High Seas Treaty create more MPA spots of hope? Image by Yo Russmo from MP Atlas. Creative Commons 4.0. With appreciation.

Marine protected areas (MPAs) provide sources with ecosystems intact, in circularity, so that nature is balanced and able to renew. Dr Sylvia Earle, founder of Mission Blue and sometimes called “Her Deepness,” proposed what she called “hope spots” that would serve to keep and potentially renew the ocean habitat. Rena Lee, President of the Intergovernmental Conference on Marine Biodiversity, who captained 36 hours of negotiation that led to the “30 x 30” pledge to protect 30% of Earth’s land and sea by 2030, made the High Seas Treaty text ready for ratification in 2023: it took two years to ratify. Lewis William Gordon Pugh, often referred to as “Sir Edmund Hillary in a swim suit” swam every ocean on the globe to promote Marine Protected Areas.

Lewis Pugh, 2007. Creative Commons 3.0. With appreciation.

The International Seabed Authority (ISA) has approved “Areas of Particular Environmental Interest” or (APEI). This is good news. But the ISA is also preparing to decide whether (or when) to mine the deep seabed. Therein lie buried treasure deposits of critical minerals. ISA keeps a database “Deep Data” that identifies marine mineral resources.

Cobalt, nickel, and other minerals important for electronics and smart devices are in high demand. Mining on land has thus far provided these resources, but mines are getting tapped out. The same minerals and metals are present in the deep seabed – in untapped abundance. For example, gold in the deep seabed is estimated to be worth $150 trillion.

Gold of El Dorado, Gold Museum of Bogotá. Photograph by Pedro Szekely. Creative Commons 2.0. With appreciation.

ISA is presently developing its Mining Code. Countries that are signatory to the Law of the Sea have the right to apply for mining access. So far, all the ISA contracts for cobalt and other materials are only for the first phase of Exploration. The next phase is Exploitation. Nauru triggered the Two Year rule, so mining decisions may be forthcoming.

Nauru. Image: Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program (ARM), US Department of Energy, 2002. Public Domain. With appreciation.

Our blue commons is the greatest portion of our planet, and also the origin of what we are now. We all came from the sea. And, it is the sea that will sustain us. As Rachel Carson warned: “No blue, no green.”

“No blue, no green.” Water may be the key to climate and environmental sustainability. Image: DipoleRadiation by Geoemyda, 2006. Creative Commons 3.0. With appreciation.

Once the High Seas Treaty is in effect, on 17 January 2026, there will soon be a Conference of the Parties (COP) to set the strategic agency and goals. What are your views? How can the High Seas Treaty protect, sustain, and renew our blue commons?

Brooke, K. Lusk. “Water/ENERGY: Deep Seabed Mining.” 10 July 2024. Building the World Blog. https://blogs.umb.edu/buildingtheworld/2024/07/10/water-energy-deep-seabed-mining/

Brooke, K. Lusk. “Speedo Diplomacy.” pages 56-67. Renewing the World: Casebook for Leadership in Water. 2024. ISBN: 9798985035957. See also: https://renewing theworld.com

Earle, Sylvia. “My Wish: Protect Our Oceans.” https://missionblue.org and TED Talk 2009, VIDEO https://www.ted.com/talks/sylvia_earle_my_wish_protect_our_oceans

Etymonline. “Origin and history of high seas.” https://www.etmonline.com/word/high%20seas

High Seas Alliance. “Historic Milestone for Global Ocean Protection.” 19 September 2025. https://highseasalliance.org/2025/09/19/historic-milestone-for-global-ocean-protection-60th-ratification-triggers-entry-into-force-of-high-seas-treaty/

Humphreys, John and Robert W.E. Clark. “A critical history of marine protected areas.” Marine Protect Areas: Science, Policy, and Management, 2020. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780081026984000010

International Seabed Authority: Mining Code. https://www.isa.org.jm/the-mining-code/

Kriegl, Michael, et al., “Marine Protected Areas: At the Crossroads of Nature Conservation and Fisheries Management.” 07 June 2021. Frontiers in Marine Science. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2021.676264/full

Lee. Rena. “The ship has reached the shore.” 4 March 2023. United Nations. IDEO: https:/youtu.be/BQauwZ9b9xs

Pugh, Lewis. Achieving the Impossible. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010. ISBN: 9781847372482

United Nations. “United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction.” https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/MTDSG/Volume%2011/Chapter%20XXI/XXI-10.en.pdf

United Nations. “United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.” https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/unclos_3.pdf

United Nations. “Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.” Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, CBD/COP/DEC/15/4,19 December 2022. Official Text: https://www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop-15/cop-15-dec-04-en.pdf

Washburn, Travis, et al., “Environmental Heterogeneity Throughout the Clarion-Clipperton Zone and the Potential Representativity of the APEI Network.” 30 March 2021. Frontiers in Marine Science, Volume 8, 2021. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2021.661685

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CITIES: Water Use, Reuse, and Renewal

Posted on August 14, 2025 by Building The World

Cities provide water to residents and businesses, and may lead the way to renewing water in the era of climate change. “Animation of water drop on a faucet,” by Chris 73. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.

Ever since humans began to gather in settlements, water use has been key to successful communities. The Code of Hammurabi, 1750 bce, detailed regulations on, among other things, irrigation and water use. Roman Aqueducts supplied water to a growing city; China’s Grand Canal brought water from the south to the capital Beijing, and still does today.

Where does Beijing get its water? The Grand Canal was built to carry water from the south to the north. Today, the purpose remains. The city also gets water from the Kunming Reservoir. Beijing channels reclaimed water for non-potable use from 300 wastewater plants serving the city. Image: “Modern Course of Grand Canal” by Ian Kiu, 2003. CC 3.0. Included with appreciation.

Water and energy are important ways cities can make a difference in climate change. In this series, we’ll take a look at how some cities are using (and reusing) these two essentials. Let’s start with water.

Cities and water are deeply intertwined. “Portland, Oregon at night” by Tabitha Mort, 2017. Creative Commons0 1.0, public domain, and included with appreciation.

Urban buildings use 14% of the world’s available potable water, but very few currently recycle and reuse this key resource. Water reuse can improve potable water availability by 25% in households and 75% in urban commercial buildings, according to the WateReuse Association and partner National Blue Ribbon Commission for Onsite Water Systems. Drawing together agriculture, business, commercial buildings, and municipal utilities, the Recycled Water User Network (TM) connects recycled water users with innovative approaches. Looking to update your career? There’s even a job bank.

In the European Union, the Water Reuse system Wise Freshwater established innovations and programs. While more than 40,000 million m3 of wastewater is treated in the EU, less than 3% is reused. With the Water Reuse Regulation (WRR) there are now mandated approaches to water circularity.

Flag of the African Union, with 55 current member states. Image: African Union, 2010, public domain. Included with appreciation.

The African Union (AU) introduced a Water Vision for 2025 for integrated water resources management related to the UN’s Sustainable Development Goal 6. African Water Facility notes that every dollar invested in water and sanitation produces seven dollars in benefits.

In the US, where water is a critical issue, both for drought and also in floods, five cities may lead the way to policy and innovation:

City planners often begin with water access. Image: Edwin Waller’s Layout for Austin, Texas in 1873. Creative Commons public domain, included with appreciation.

Austin, Texas launched their GoPurple water-saving program as part of the city’s 100-year plan Water Forward. By connecting mandated onsite water reuse systems (OWRS) to reclaimed water, Austin uses non-potable water for urban high-rise cooling towards, sanitation systems, and some irrigation.

Los Angeles: view of the Palisades Fire. By photographer Toasttal, 2025. Included with appreciation.

Los Angeles, California has suffered from drought and resultant wildfire. The city employs reclaimed water for industry, irrigation, and replenishing groundwater. LA developed a Green Building Code mandating that residential buildings over 25 stories have cooling towers serviced by non-potable water. Smaller buildings must reduce water use by 20%, and plumbing fixtures must use recycled water.

Miami: city of beaches, rising seas, and water policy. “Miami, Florida” by photographer Diego Delso, 2008. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.

Miami, Florida grants real estate developers a 35% bonus if units use greywater and install onsite water reuse systems in buildings with more than 25 units. In the Florida Statute 403.892, the state details incentives for greywater (sometimes spelled graywater), a term for residential or office building water from all sources – except toilets.

“Phoenix Arizona Desert Heatwave Sunrise 2023” by photographer Ray Redstone, 2023. Creative Commons 4.0, included with appreciation.

Phoenix, Arizona is one of the most arid cities in the world. The city’s Water Smart incentive program offers free consultations on water conservation, reuse, and recycling. Approaches include appliance replacement rebate programs and financial incentives for removing grass. Training a new generation for water use in the future environment, Phoenix also offers classroom materials in Spanish and English.

San Francisco as seen from Marin Highlands by photographer Paul h., 2006. Public domain and included with appreciation.

San Francisco, California passed Article 12C of the city’s health code, requiring all new development projects over 100,000 gross square feet (9,290.304) install onsite water reuse systems. The city provides an Onsite Water Reuse Program Guidebook.

Cities are faster and more efficient policy makers than nations. While in the US, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) may be affected by decisions and programs such as the Water Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (WIFIA), a federal credit program administered by the EPA offering loans for water and wastewater infrastructure projects, cities may be a more reliable action point. By 2050, 69% of the world’s population will be urban. Are cities the climate policy leaders of the future?

Taketa, Õita Prefecture, Japan, uses circular water sharing. Image by Tsutsui Mizuki, 2007. Dedicated to the public domain by the photographer; included with appreciation.

Human use affects more than 70% of the global, ice-free land surface (IPCC 2019). Water resources will continue to be a critical issue. Cities may lead the way. C40 Cities is a global network of mayors uniting in action to respond to the climate crisis. With 97 cities comprising 22% of the entire global economy, C40 offers a Knowledge Hub for all cities to find ways to improve and protect the future.

Do you live in a city, large or small? How does your city use (and reuse) water?

C40. “How to manage water scarcity and adapt to drought.” Knowledge HUB. https://www.c40knowledgehub.org/article/How-to-manage-water-scarcity-and-adapt-to-drought?language=en_US

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Climate Change and Land: An IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems. P.R. Shukla, et al., editors. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157988.001

King, L.W., translator. “The Code of Hammurabi.” Yale Law School Avalon Project. https://avalon.law.yale.edu/ancient/hamframe.asp

Renewing the World. “Water” https://renewingtheworld.com

San Francisco Public Utilities Commission. “Onsite Water Reuse.” https://sfpuc.gov/programs/water-supply/onsite-water-reuse

WateReuse. “National Blue Ribbon Commission for Onsite Water Systems.” https://watereuseorg/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/NBRC_Factsheet_FINAL-2-2.pdf

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

SPACE: What is the Next Step?

Posted on July 20, 2025July 20, 2025 by Building The World

On 20 July, in 1969, the first human to set foot upon the moon proclaimed the achievement was: “One small step for a person, one giant leap for humankind.” Since the Nasa Apollo lunar landing, advances in space have accelerated.

July 20, 1969: Buzz Aldrin standing on the moon. NASA, Apollo 11. 1969. Public domain.

Six moon landings were completed by the US between 1969 and 1972. Russia deployed the first extraterrestrial rovers up until 1976. Since then, the moon has been visited by China, European Space Agency (ESA), India, Israel, Italy, Luxembourg, Pakistan, Russia, South Korea, and the United Arab Emirates.

India’s Chandrayaan Landing Sites on the moon. Did you know the Sanskrit/Hindi word for moon is *Chandra*? Image by Footy2000, from Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter data, 2023. Creative Commons 3.0.

While the Outer Space Treaty prohibits countries from proclaiming ownership of the moon, or other celestial bodies, private enterprise is not forbidden. At the time the Outer Space Treaty was developed, it was thought that no commercial company could ever amass needed funding, staff, and technology. But now, governments are partnering with businesses to explore – and exploit – lunar assets.

Image of the moon illustrating the various minerals located in the lunar northern hemisphere. NASA, Galileo project. Public Domain.

The moon contains water ice (useful for rocket fuel from hydrogen), helium-3 (useful for fusion reactors), and critical minerals including rare earths. There are also deposits of aluminum, calcium, manganese, magnesium, and titanium, as well as iron and silicon.

Flag of the United Nations (UN). Image: UN, public domain.

Agreements since the UN’s Outer Space Treaty (1967) further defined and regulated lunar assets. The 1972 Convention on International Liability for Damage caused by Space Objects, and the 1979 Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies may influence lunar activities.

Ocean seabed mining is now under review by the International Seabed Authority. Environmental damage could be severe. Image: “Sea Anemones” by Giacomo Merculiano, 1893. Public Domain.

During this time of demand for critical minerals, humans are beginning to look beyond traditional land. The International Seabed Authority (ISA) is considering whether to permit ocean mining: environmental damage could be severe. Would the moon be safer? What about space debris? ISA decisions might affect space mining: ocean and space are the commons that belong to everyone.

Space mining and lunar harvesting are possible. But would they be a small step, or a giant misstep? Image: Space mining painting by Denise Watt, 1977, Ames Research Center (ARC) 1977. NASA image: S78-27139. Public Domain.

What do you think about space mining? Who owns the assets? What environmental and other aspects might need guidelines? Should the world’s governing organizations like the United Nations further define rights for space?

Brooke, K. Lusk. “Mining for Critical Minerals: Land, Sea, or Space? ” 27 February 2025. Building the World Blog. https://blogs.umb.edu/buildingtheworld/2025/02/27/energy-critical-minerals-land-sea-or-space/

Koch, Jonathan Sydney. “Institutional Framework for the Province of all Mankind: Lessons from the International Seabed Authority for the Governance of Commercial Space Mining,” 2008, Astropolitics 16: 1, pages 1-27. https://www.tandfronline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14777622.2017.1381824

International Seabed Authority. https://www.isa.org.jm

United Nations. “Outer Space Treaty.” 1967. https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html

United Nations. “Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects.” 1972. https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introliability-convention.html

United Nations. “Moon Treaty.” 1979. https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/intromoon-agreement.html

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U