Tag: public health

CITIES: Fire and Future – How to HELP

Posted on by Building The World
Can you offer a helping hand to those affected by the California wildfires? Find information and resources here.  Photo “A Helping Hand” by Damian Gadel, Creative Commons 2.0.

Wildfires are increasing in severity with drought. California began 2025 with a conflagration in the Los Angeles area accelerated by high winds. In 2024, across the United States, over 61,000 fires burned more than 8,000,000 acres.

“Fire” animation by Nevit, 2008. Creative Commons 3.0.

Globally, wildfires observed by the Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS) not only destroyed land, particularly in North and South America, but emitted 1,940 megatonnes of carbon monoxide, and deadly particulate matter. While the first response to a wildfire is saving lives, and then homes and businesses, the impact on air pollution is also an important factor.

Wildfire smoke generates smoke and particulate mattter damaging to people, animals, and environment. Image: “Aerial View of Smoke Hovering Over North Carolina HIghway 264 leading to National Wildlife Refuge” in 2011, photographer Scott Lanier, USFWS. Creative Commons 2.0

With climate change, planetary warming, and increasing drought, fires will be a problem well into the future. What are some ways we can defend and protect against wildfires?

Xeriscaping saves water and stops fire. Image: “Los Angeles Air Force Base xeriscaping” by AF_SMC, 2015. Public Domain.

Defensible Space: our modern day lawns are the result of medieval fire defense. Castles were surrounded by fields: in order to spot encroaching enemies who might attack or set fire to grasses and plants, lords of the manor required areas around the castle be scythed. Cut grass became an upper class symbol that gave us modern day lawns. But according to FEMA guidelines for wildland/urban interface construction, defensible space can be improved. Southern Nevada Water Authority recently passed the first ever permanent law against “non-functional turf” – no more lawns after 2027. Landscaping designers might offer xeriscaping, saving water and protecting against fire.

Residents of Los Angeles commute due to urban sprawl in the city and surrounding areas. Image: “Highway 110 Los Angeles” by Giuseppe Milo, 2016. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.

Housing Shortages and Urban Expansion: California leads the Western United States in building in locations with high risk for fire, but Utah is second, followed by Colorado and Arizona. Wildland/Urban Interface is the term: California is an example, building 10,000 homes in the last decade in areas prone to wildfire. Urban sprawl also leads to traffic congestion as workers commute into the city from far-flung locations in order to afford housing. Solutions to housing must be part of future municipal planning, particularly when new housing areas are developed in fire or flood zones.

“California Water System” by Shannon1, 2010. Creative Commons 3.0. Included with appreciation.

Water Infrastructure: In times of drought, water scarcity can lead to difficult decisions about how to allocate water. California’s residential population uses only 10% of the state’s water: agriculture drains far more. Should crops like almonds that require large amounts of water be subject to special taxing?

“Official Seal of the California Department of Insurance,” 2015. Public Domain.

Insurance: An estimated 16,500 properties have been lost so far, in the Palisades and Eaton fires that consumed 38,000 acres to date: the Kenneth and Hurst fires are yet to be tallied. The Insurance Information Institute reported some companies had stopped issuing new homeowner policies, responding to a California requirement that insurance companies must hold certain reserves. University of California Berkeley’s Center for Law, Energy, and the Environment observed that profitability for existing companies will be severely restricted. Some homeowners resorted to California’s FAIR plan, insurer of last resort, but even that resource is now threatened. Globally, the insurance industry is increasingly denying payouts for rebuilding in zones with repeated losses.

“London Bridge Fire of 1632” by unknown artist, circa 1660. Public Domain.

Building Materials: wood has been a preferred material for structures because of its strength and availability. But the history of London Bridge might send a warning: the span was crossed by timbers during Roman times. But in 1176 King Henry II selected Peter de Colechurch to construct, next to the existing wooden span, a stone bridge. London Bridge burned again in 1632. Today, roof coverings, siding, decks, and houses should be built with noncombustible or fire-resistant materials. Windows and attic vents pose vulnerabilities unless specifically protected, because once breached, these apertures can allow fire to enter a dwelling.  Top five fire-resistant building materials are: fire-resistant glass for windows; concrete for structures, especially new formulations of Insulating Concrete Form (ICF); stucco made of Portland cement, sand, and lime; gypsum board for drywall; and brick or stone.

Community counts, especially during times of disaster. Image: “People holding hands” by Cieresek, 2016. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.

Community: Help those affected by fire, loss of home by contributing to community outreach including free Airbnb options, hotels helping the homeless, and even free showers at gyms like Planet Fitness. Find giving and helping opportunities to help those in need. 

Allen, Greg. “California’s wildfires may also be catastrophic for its insurance market.” 13 January 2025. NPR. AUDIO. https://www.npr.org/2025/01/13/nxs1-5256381/californias-wildfires-insurace-market

Brooke, K. Lusk. “River Real(i)ty: Drought, fire, future habitats.” Case # 3. Renewing the World: Casebook for Leadership in Water. ISBN: 9798985035957. https://renewingtheworld.com

Clayton, Abené. “LA fires forecast to be costliest blaze in US history with estimate of over $200bn in losses.” The Guardian. 13 January 2025. https://www.theguardiancom/us-news/2025/jan/13/la-fires-wildfire-economic-losses

Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS). “Wildfires 2024.” VIDEO. https://youtu.be/TEMMcNEI6Io and http://atmosphere.copernicus.edu/cams-global-wildfires-review-2024-harsh-year-americas

Davidson, Frank P. and K. Lusk Brooke. “London Bridge” Volume One, Chapter 8. Building the World. 2006. ISBN: 0313333734.

FEMA. “Home Builder’s Guide to Construction in Wildfire Zones: Technical Fact Sheet Series.” https://wildfiretoday.com/documents/FEMA_home_builders_guide_wildfire_zones.pdf

Hughes, Amy R. and Mark Powers. “How to Build a Fireproof Home.” This Old House. https://www.thisoldhouse.com/natural-disasters/21015405/how-to-build-a-fireproof-home

National Centers for Environmental Information. “Annual 2024 Wildfires Report.” January 2025. https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/monthly-report/fire/202413

Priceonomics and Cape Analytics. “The Wildfire West: Where house sprawl and wildfire-prone areas collide.” 2020. https://priceonomics.com/the-wildfire-west-where-housing-sprawl-and/

Renewing the World: Water. Database of Water Laws. FREE Download. https://renewingtheworld.com/files/samples/Renewing-The-World-Water-Database-Laws.pdf

Singer, Gabe. “Owners of a fire-resistant house in LA hope city rebuilds smarter.” MSN. https://www.msn.com/en-us/video/peopleandplaces/owners-of-a-fire-resistant-house-in-la-hope-city-builds-smarter/

Southern Nevada Water Authority. Assembly Bill No 356, 22 March 2021. https://www.leg.state.nv/us/Session/81st2021/Bills/AB/AB356_R1.pdf

Appreciation to Evan T. Litwin for contributing research.

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

ENERGY: Nuclear Decisions – Part I

Posted on by Building The World
The only building left standing in Hiroshima, Japan, after 6 August 1945 is now a peace memorial. “Genbaku Dome” photographed by Oilstreet, Creative Commons 2.5.

This week marks the 79th year since the tragedy of nuclear warfare. Japan, only country to have experienced the effects of nuclear warfare, has always pledged non-participation in nuclear arms development. While the US has traditionally included Japan and South Korea in its protection, recent geopolitics in the area (and elsewhere) may encourage self-protection. With fear rising in Seoul due to its nuclear northern neighbor, 71 per cent of South Koreans surveyed expressed belief that self-protection may be necessary.

Tragic bombing of Japan in August 1945. Left image: Hiroshima (6 August 1945) by George P. Caron. Right image: Nagasaki (9 August 1945) by Charles Levy. Image from U.S. Department of Energy. Public Domain.

Japan may be less inclined. There are still 106,823 survivors who are a testament to the tragedy of August 1945. And the present generation who experienced the 2011 Fukushima disaster have grown wary of nuclear danger: not just in war but in energy production. In the Fukushima tragedy, 47,000 people fled their homes, ocean water near the plant became contaminated, and 80 square miles (207 square kilometers) were declared uninhabitable. Loss and damage remediation cost: estimated at $660 billion (71 trillion Yen). Those who visit Fukushima, or the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum, may reflect upon past – and future- nuclear decisions.

Einstein stated the letter to FDR was his life’s biggest regret. Image: “Albert Einstein, 1947” by photographer Jack Oren Turner, 1947. Public Domain.

Einstein, whose letter to then-president Franklin D. Roosevelt led to the development of the Manhattan Project that resulted in the bombs, said it was his life’s biggest regret. Is it finally time for the world to join and support Hiroshima’s declaration, this week, that we must move from “ideal” to real action in nuclear disarmament. Governor Hidehiko Yuzaki of Hiroshima Prefecture noted that once a weapon is invented, likelihood of use becomes a problem that may never resolve.  If you want to support nuclear disarmament, lift your voice here or here.

Wyoming is the location of TerraPower’s civil nuclear energy and electricity plant with a new, safer design: will it change nuclear decisions? Image: “John Moulton Barn at base of Grand Tetons, Wyoming” by photographer John Sullivan, 2004. Dedicated to the public domain.

But what about nuclear power as a non-carbon source of energy in a world seeking to stop carbon-caused climate change? Microsoft co-founder and philanthropist Bill Gates invested in TerraPower in 2008: in 2024, the company developed a new design for a power plant in Kemmerer, Wyoming, USA. Gates noted that former nuclear designs use water to cool the system (a problem in the Fukushima disaster), but the Wyoming project will use liquid sodium. The medium can withstand eight times more heat than water, and does not require pumping back into the system. It still uses uranium, however.

“Uranium electron shell diagram” by graphic designer Pumbaa80. Creative commons 2.0.

Uranium is radioactive in all its isotopes; U-235 is fissile, and is the basis for most of the world’s nuclear power stations. As a mineral, uranium decays into other, lighter, elements: but it takes time. The half-life of U-235: 704 million years. Storage of spent fuel continues to be an issue. The world’s biggest deposits of uranium are in Australia, Canada, and Kazakhstan: these countries therefore may influence world nuclear policies.

Not all countries have signed, and ratified, the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT). How can you help to advance support? Image: “CTBT Participation as of 2022” by graphic designer Allstar86. Creative Commons 3.0.

Even more influence comes from those who have not signed, or have resigned from, the global Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT). Russia pulled out; the US has signed but never ratified. India, North Korea, and Pakistan have not yet signed. While 187 nations have agreed, only 36 have ratified. In addition to the US, China, Egypt, Iran, and Israel have not yet ratified. If you live in a country that has not signed or ratified, your action and encouragement can make a difference.

France has the largest share of civil nuclear power for electricity generation. It is also home to ITER, site of development of fusion energy. Image: “Nuclear plants map of France,” by graphic designer Sting, 2006. Public Domain.

But as the Atomic Energy Act reminds us, nuclear power is an energy form with environmental (and medical) benefits. Advocates of nuclear power, including Gates, speak of its potential to help the world achieve a carbon-free, net-zero goal as we transition away from coal, gas, and oil. Many join Gates in supporting nuclear energy for a carbon-free world. Today, there are  nuclear power plants supplying energy and electricity in over 50 countries. The US, France, China, Japan, Russia, South Korea, Canada, and Ukraine (in that order) are the top producers; France has the largest share of energy generation from nuclear. Germany, however, decided to phase out and decommission its nuclear energy infrastructure.

Global Zero is an international organization dedicated to a world without nuclear weapons. Image: “Global Zero” by Global Zero. Public Domain. Included with appreciation.

But even if new civil nuclear designs like that of TerraPower are safer operationally, are nuclear power plants still a danger as potential targets? Ukraine would say this is sadly true, as evidenced by recent threats to Zaporizhzhia. Bombing or otherwise exploding a civil nuclear facility built to generate electricity would result in two disasters: disabling energy infrastructure and triggering a radioactive explosion that would cause immediate casualties and lingering contamination.  A database of nuclear terrorism is maintained by the Monterey Institute of International Studies, James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies Middlebury Institute of International Studies at Monterey, and the Center for International Security and Cooperation at Stanford University. Organizations like Global Zero offer ways to get involved. The United Nations Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, 7 July 2017, offers a vision.

In the next part, we’ll look at possibly safer forms of civil nuclear energy. Using uranium may be dangerous, but could small modular nuclear reactors (SMR) be less of a threat? And will the work of Jean-Louis Bobin and other physicists developing nuclear fusion independent of uranium change the field – and the world?

When learning that this week marks the 79th anniversary of the use of nuclear weapons in war, a student remarked: “By next year, the 80th, how can we reach complete nuclear disarmament?”

Image: “Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament,” by photographer Marshall Colman, 2010. Public Domain. Included with appreciation.

Take action here or here.  This week, especially, honor peace.

Bobin, Jean-Louis. Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion. World Scientific: 2014. 978-9814590686

Brooke, K. Lusk. “Oppenheimer,” 22 July 2023. Building the World Blog. https://blogs.umb.edu/buildingtheworld/2023/07/22/energy-oppenheimer/

Davidson, Frank P. and K. Lusk Brooke. “The Manhattan Project,” Chapter 26. pages 477-514. Volume II. Building the World. Greenwood 2006. ISBN: 0-313-33374-2.

Gates, Bill. “Nuclear Power.” VIDEO. 16 June 2024. CNN.  https://www.cnn.com/2024/06/16/business/video/bill-gates-nuclear-power-gps-sot-digvid

Global Zero. https://www.globalzero.org/take-action/chaosnewstart/index.html

Holdren, John P. “Threats to Civil Nuclear-energy Facilities,” chapter, Science and Technology to Counter Terrorism: Proceedings of an Indo-U.S. Workshop. 2007. National Academies Press. https://nap.nationalacademicies.org/read/11848/chapter/8

International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN). Nobel Peace Prize 2017. “How to stop nuclear weapons.” https://www.icanw.org/take_action_now

Jiangtao, Shi. “Could Japan and South Korea join the nuclear club? Cold war fears put the prospect in play.”  6 August 2024. South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/opinion/china-opinion/article/3273440/could-japan-and-south-korea-join-nuclear-club-cold-war-fears-put-prospect-play

Kingsbury, Kathleen, Editor, with W.J. Hennigan, and Spencer Cohen. 2024. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2024/05/22/opinion/nuclear-weapons-nytimes.html

Langley, Winston E. Abolishing War. Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2024. ISBN: 978-1-962551-25-0

Nicholls-Lee, Deborah. ” ‘It was the one great mistake in my life’: The letter from Einstein that ushered in the age of the atomic bomb.” 6 August 2024. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20240801-it-was-the-one-great-mistake-in-my-life-the-letter-from-einstein-that-ushered-in-the-age-of-the-atomic-bomb

Nolan, Christopher. “Oppenheimer.” IMDb. https://www.imdb.com/title-tt15398776

United Nations. “Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.” 7 July 2017. https://disarmament.unoda.org/wmd/nuclear/tpnw/#:~:text=The%20Treaty%20on%20the%20Prohibition,threaten%20to%20use%20nuclear%20weapons

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. “TerraPower, LLC, Submittal of the Construction Permit Application for the Natrium Reactor Plant, Kemmerer Power Station, Unit 1,” Accession number ML24088A059, 10 April 2024. https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML2408/ML24088A059.html

World Nuclear Association. “Uranium mining overview.” 16 May 2024. https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/uranium-mining-overview

Yamaguchi, Mari. “Hiroshima governor says nuclear disarmament must be tackled as a pressing issue, not an ideal.” 6 August 2014. Associated Press. https://www.conchovalleyhomepage.com/news/ap-hiroshima-governor-says-nuclear-disarmament-must-be-tackled-as-a-pressing-issue-not-an-idea/

Great appreciation to colleagues who suggested nuclear disarmament paths.

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

 

ENERGY/CITIES: Are You in a Circle of Danger?

Posted on by Building The World
If you live within 1/2 mile (0.8 kilometer) of a fossil fuel processing plant, you may be in a circle of danger. Image above shows air pollution as it circles the globe. “Air Pollution Earth” by NASA, 2001. Public Domain.

Air pollution is a serious problem worldwide. Burning of fossil fuels, excess vehicular traffic, and lack of green spaces to absorb emissions, are causing clogged skies and public health dangers. Case in point, this month: India.

“Taj Mahal” from a photograph circa 1900. Image source: U.S. Library of Congress. Creative Commons Public Domain. Included with appreciation.

Those who visited India’s famed Taj Mahal may not have been able to see the iconic monument this month. Air pollution fogged India’s skies. New Delhi, home to 35 million people, closed schools and warned residents to stay indoors if possible. NASA’s satellite images showed dense smoke over the landscape. But more troubling was the cause: particulate matter toxins and pollutants so tiny they can pass into human (and animal) airways to cause illness and chronic conditions.

“Air pollution in India from burning of rice residues in SE Punjab, India, prior to wheat season.” By Neil Palmer, CIAT. Creative commons 2.0. Included with appreciation.

Seasonal – in November, farmers clear straw after the rice harvest: it’s known as “stubble burning.” That practice increases normal pollution levels caused by domestic fires for heating and cooking, as well as smog from industry and vehicles.

Diwali fireworks may add to air pollution. “Diwali fireworks, India” by Urbanurban_ru, 2013. Creative commons 2.0. Included with appreciation.

Fireworks: Added Danger – add to present air problems the joyous feast of Diwali, occasion for sky-illuminating, but also air-polluting, fireworks and air pollution becomes more serious. After Diwali, transport authorities are considering calling for an alternation of traffic days, allowing certain vehicles on the road every odd/even day. In some global locations, during seasonal festivals, many cities opt for aerial drone displays rather than traditional fireworks.

Regional – as New Delhi experiences air quality issues, Lahore, Pakistan, home to 13 million people, has also recommended schools, shopping malls, and some businesses, close temporarily. The air quality index (AQI) reached a hazardous level. Air pollution is a transboundary problem.

“Comparison of footprint and transboundary air pollution.” Nansai, Keisuke, et al., https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-26348-y. Creative commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.

Pollution Effects Worldwide – 1 in 5 deaths worldwide can be traced to illnesses initiated or worsened by air pollution from fossil fuel combustion. Researchers from the University of Birmingham, University of Leicester, University College, London, and Harvard University found that 8 million people died from causes linked to air pollution in 2018; since then, things have gotten worse.

If you live near a fossil fuel processing plant, you may be in the circle of danger. Image: “Jamnagar Refinery at Night” by Reliance industries, 2006, from Forbes India. Creative Commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.

Circle of Danger – the closer you live to a fossil fuel production facility, the more pollutants you may encounter. Toxins entering the air, and your lungs, include benzene, carbon dioxide, ethylbenzene, formaldehyde, methane, toluene, and xylene. The term for some of these substances is Volatile Organic Compound (VOC). In the United States, there are over 1 million active production wells, natural gas compressor stations, and processing plants, with 12 million people living within 1/2 mile (0.8 kilometer) – the circle of danger.

Do you live within a circle of danger? Image: “Red circle” by graphic designer AmericanXplorer13. Creative commons 4.0. Included with appreciation.

Want to find out if your business, home, or school is within the toxic zone? If you live in the United States, you can track your location on the THREAT MAP.

Atwoli, Lukoye, et al., “Call for emergency action to limit global temperature increases, restore biodiversity, and protect health.” September 2021. The Lancet, Volume 398, Issue 10304, p939-941, September 11, 2021. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PII0140-6736(21)01915-2/flltext#%20

Burrows, Leah. “Deaths from fossil fuel emissions higher than previously thought.” 9 February 2021. Harvard Gazette. https://seas.harvard.edu/news/2021/02/deaths-fossil-fuel-emissions-higher-previously-thought

Clean Air Task Force. “Fossil Fumes.” 15 September 2022. https://www.catf.us/resource/fossil-fumes-public-health-analysis/

Mogul, Rhea. “This megacity is the latest to shut down as pollution chokes swathes of South Asia.” 10 November 2023 CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2023/11/10/asia/pakistan-india-pollution-new-delhi-lahore-intl-hnk?cid=ios_app

Patel, Kasha. “The smog choking this Indian city is visible from space.” 9 November 2023. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2023/11/09/india-air-quality-smog-new-delhi/

Vohra, Karn et al., “Global mortality from outdoor fine particle pollution generated by fossil fuel combustion: Results from GEOS-Chem.” Environmental Research, Volume 195, April 2021, 110754. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0013935121000487

Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G. Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 U

Straws that Filter Bacteria and Parasites

Posted on by Building The World
“Bunch of drinking straws.” Photographer: Nina Matthews. Image: wikimedia commons.

Over two billion people in the world don’t have safe drinking water. Death from water-borne diseases takes more lives than violence and war. The answer may be in the humble straw, fitted with a filter. LifeStraw, for example, looks like a regular drinking straw, but inside are filters that can catch anything larger than  two microns, enough to block 99% of parasites, and bacteria that cause cholera, typhoid fever. LifeStraw was started by Mikkel Vestergaard Frandsen who inherited his grandfather’s uniform manufacturing factory; instead, Fransen rebuilt the machines to make a straw with the steel mesh filter that was successful in wiping out guinea worm disease, which went from 3.5 million in 1986 to 25 in 2017. Partners include the Carter Center. The New River of England delivered clean water to London when the Thames needed help; Rome’s aqueducts saved the future of Rome when the Tiber became threatened by poison. LifeStraw has been used in disaster relief in Ecuador, Haiti, Pakistan, and Thailand. Present projects include an initiative to bring clean drinking water to students in locations including Kenya. LifeStraw won a design award at MoMA.

Carter Center. “Eradicating Guinea Worm Disease.” March 2014. https://www.cartercenter.org/donate/corporate-government-foundation-partners/archives/vestergaard-frandsen.html

CFEG. “Mikkel Westergaard Frandsen: 17 Next Generation Family Enterprise Leaders to Watch in ’17” Cambridge Family Enterprise Group. https://cfeg.com/nextgenleaders2017/bio/mikkel-vestergaard-frandsen.html.

Garvett, Zaria. “The miraculous straw that lets you drink dirty water.” 5 March 2018. BBC Future. http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20180305-the-miraculous-straw-that-lets-you-drink-dirty-water/.

Katayama, Lisa. “Fighting Water-Borne Disease in Africa, and Making Millions in the Process.” 25 March 2011. Fast Company. https://www.fastcompany.com/1749253/fighting-water-borne-disease-africa-and-making-millions-process/.

lifestraw.com. 

 

Public Health — Panama Canal

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Panama Canal public health programs reduced malaria, spread by mosquitoes. Image: World Health Organization

Do you know how malaria got its name and how the Panama Canal helped to reduce the dreaded disease? Originally thought to be caused by “bad (mal) air (aria),” the term was coined in Italy’s marshlands. Frenchman Alphonse Laveran pioneered health science on malaria. But the breakthrough came when British scientist Sir Ronald Ross, inspired by Laveran’s work, on August 20, 1897, in Secunderabad, India, determined the role of mosquitoes in transmitting the condition. Sir Ronald was so excited he wrote both a scientific article and a poem about the discovery, perhaps one of the first instances of poetry composed by a pioneering scientist. Ross’ work was followed by Americans in Havana, Cuba, to combat malaria and yellow fever; the effort was lead by Surgeon Major W.C. Gorgas, United States Army. In 1904, the Isthmian Canal Commission invited Gorgas to visit the construction site for the Panama Canal, an area prone to malaria, with a rainy season lasting nine months in a tropical environment. Gorgas reduced the percentage of malaria-infected canal workers from 9% in 1905 t0 5% in 1906, and finally to 1.6% in 1909. Working with Gorgas, Joseph Augustin LePrince, developed a larvacide mixture; Samel T. Darling introduced a daytime tent inspection program that was simple yet highly effective. The Panama Canal did not, unfortunately, eliminate malaria, but its integrated mosquito control program set a new model for public health. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (http://www.gatesfoundation.org) and Partners in Health (www.pih.org/) are among today’s leaders in conquering malaria. How can public health be improved through large-scale efforts such as public works?

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Building the World Blog by Kathleen Lusk Brooke and Zoe G Quinn is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License.